Capable Guardianship and CRISIS of Identity Theft in the United States : Expanding Cyber-Routine Activities Theory

Back Sin-chul,Sung Yong-eun,Cruz Erik J-INSTITUTE 2017 International Journal of Crisis & Safety Vol.2 No.1

Identity theft victimization is a pervasive issue that affected 17.6 million people in the United States in 2014. In recent years, criminals have leveraged an expanding field of technologies, tactics, and various systems to commit identity theft. According to the Department of Justice, 7% of all Americans ages 16 and older were vic-timized. This 7% accounted for an estimated $50 billion in losses in 2016. Routine activities theory is often used as a theoretical lens and is frequently considered in conjunction with victim’s online profiles and routine activities. Routine activities theory states that crime is more likely to occur when these three elements are present: a motivated offender, suitable targets, and lack of available guardian-ship. Various studies have focused on the measurements of victim’s online exposure to motivated offenders, online proximity to motivated offenders, online target suitability, online self-guardianship (target hardening), and demographic characteristics. The purpose of this study was to empirically examine identity theft victimization in the United States through the lens of cyber-routine activities theory. A subsample of 84,823 respondents from a 2014 National Crime Victimization Survey was analyzed. The current study provided a more concise measurement on capable self-guardianship. Specifically, the researchers looked at two types of self-guardianship, online and offline self-guardianship. Online self-guardianship was defined as a protective behavior or online tool that could help po-tential victims secure themselves from perpetrators. These include but are not limited to changing passwords, firewalls, and antivirus programs. In accordance with routine activity theory, offline self-guardianship was de-fined as protective behavior or target hardening in the physical world. These protective measures served to prevent conventional types of crimes in both the physical world and cyberspace. In an attempt to address the gaps in the literature regarding a concise measurement of self-guardianship, the following hypotheses were evaluated in the present study: 1) individuals who have a higher level of online self-guardianships (e.g. changing passwords or using security software) are less likely to be victimized by identi-ty theft; 2) individuals who have a higher level of offline self-guardianships (e.g. checking credit report or statement) are less likely to be victimized by identity theft. The findings indicated that online and offline self-guardianship was statistically significant effect on the reduction of identity theft victimization. Lastly, the study concluded with a discussion of the policy implications and a discussion of limitations of the current research.

The Effect of TERRORISM Risk Perception and Agency’s Interaction on Police Homeland Security Preparedness

Back Sin-chul,Sung Yong-eun,LaPrade Jennifer J-INSTITUTE 2017 Regulations Vol.2 No.1

Since 9/11, terrorism has been widely recognized as a significant political and social problem, with countries all over the world increasing their counterterrorism efforts. In the United States, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created in 2002 to consolidate 22 federal agencies into one massive department focused on keeping the country safe, largely through antiterrorism and counterterrorism efforts. DHS also coordinates ef-forts on the state, county, and local levels to enhance police terrorism preparedness, since local law enforcement will likely be first responders in the event of a terrorist attack. In fact, in 2016, DHS allocated $1.6 billion in grant funding to prepare state and local law enforcement to prevent and respond to such attacks as part of their “Na-tional Preparedness and Resilience” priorities. Most of the local agencies in this initiative are smaller law enforcement agencies with 1-25 full-time employ-ees. What is the level of terrorism preparedness of these small agencies and what factors influence that level of preparedness? Recent research has explored terrorism’s etiology and law enforcement’s preparedness on its risk. Some argue that police risk perceptions or police interactions with a larger agency influence the level of homeland security preparedness. However, there is a lack of empirical research on the determinants of police homeland security preparedness. The present study will empirically analyze the effect of police terrorism risk perceptions and police interactions on the level of police homeland security preparedness. Contingency theory is used as an explanatory framework to understand risk perception, organizational be-havior, and preparedness. To address gaps in the literature regarding homeland security policing, the present study simultaneously tests hypotheses derived from contingency theory, namely, whether police terrorism risk perceptions effectively influence the level of police homeland security preparedness and whether police agency’s interactions with a larger agency effectively influence the level of police homeland security preparedness. This study uses data from a national survey of 350 small municipal law enforcement agencies from March 2011 to June 2011 in the United States. A multinomial logistic regression analysis revealed that police terrorism risk perceptions and frequent interactions with a larger agency are positively associated with the level of home-land security preparedness in small law enforcement agencies in the United States. In other words, the primary findings from this study indicate that police agencies with higher levels of perceived terrorism risk and interac-tions with a larger agency are more likely to enhance their preparedness for future terrorism and cyber terrorism incidents. The contributions, limitations and suggestions for the future study were discussed in discussions and conclusion.

Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Cyberattacks: Effective CYBERCRIME Prevention Strategies around the Globe

Back Sin chul,La Prade Jennifer,Sadhika Soor J-INSTITUTE 2018 Protection Convergence Vol.3 No.1

The issue of cyberattacks has become very pervasive and increasingly dangerous in the digital age. Many industrialized nations are highly dependent upon computer systems and other technologically supported infra-structures. An attack on such infrastructures may very likely compromise a nation’s security and economic vitality. However, to date there has not been a multinational cooperation system as an effective cyberattack prevention strategy. While the policing of high crime areas, known as hotspots, has garnered much attention among scholars and law enforcement officials, the spatial identification of hotspots in cybercrime has been limited. Routine activity theory has often been applied to explain crimes in the physical space, and consistent with this framework, a new theory has been put forth to explain crimes in cyberspace: cyber-routine activities theory. This theory contends that an unguarded virtual network must be present in addition to a potential offender and potential target in order for a cybercrime to occur. Further, unlike the spatial and temporal convergence of the physical world, the virtual world is not bound by the same spatial and temporal orderings. Due to the dynamic nature of cyberspace, a cyberattack may be committed against a target in different real-world time zones, while also allowing the at-tacker to escape. The current study seeks to address gaps in the literature concerning spatial and temporal patterns of cyberat-tack origins and victimizations. The purpose of this study is to identify spatial and temporal patterns of cyberattack hotspots, which can help law enforcement establish an effective cybercrime prevention strategy for international communities. In terms of methodology, Geospatial Information System(GIS) technique is employed to investigate the patterns of cyberattacks and victimizations. Data was derived from the Norse website from February 15-16, 2017, which feeds a livestream of cyberattacks worldwide. The data includes cyberattack origins, types, targets, times, IP addresses, locations, and ports. This study focuses on answering the following four research questions: Which nations are the top seven coun-tries by count: cyberattack origins? Which nations are the top seven countries by count: cyberattack victimiza-tions? Do the spatial hotspots for cyberattack origins differ from the spatial hotspots for cyberattack victimiza-tions? Does a temporal pattern of cyberattacks in the daytime differ from a temporal pattern of cyberattacks in the nighttime? Thus, the findings of the current study indicate (1) the spatial hotspots of the cyber attackers and victims, and (2) the difference between temporal patterns of cyberattacks in the daytime and nighttime. Finally, policy implications and limitations of the current study are discussed.

Impact of a Refugee Crisis on the Increase of TERRORIST Incidents

Back Sin-chul,Sung Yong-eun,Morales Ana J-INSTITUTE 2017 Protection Convergence Vol.2 No.1

It is not news that terrorism incidents have consistently been occurring around the world since the 1970s with an increase in the recent years. In 2015 alone, there were 11,774 terrorist attacks worldwide resulting in approx-imately 28,300 casualties and 35,300 people injured. Therefore, it is not a surprise that terrorism has become one of the most controversial issues that our society currently is facing. One of the many debates surrounding the topic of terrorism is the causes and motives. This is partly because of the lack of a unified definition of terror-ism. Therefore, the definition of terrorism must be explored. In Europe, there has been an increase in terrorist attacks in the past few years. Specifically, after the Syrian refugee crisis began in April 2011, terrorist attacks have almost doubled from 2013 to 2015. However, there are very few studies that examine the relationship between a major refugee crisis and terrorism. The study reviewed two major studies with contradictory findings. One study suggested that in countries hosting refugee terrorist attacks increased, while the other found no link. The purpose of this study is to explore whether a sudden refugee crisis, such as the Syrian refugee crisis, has an impact on the increase of terrorism incidents. Data compiled by the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism at the University of Maryland were analyzed. This data included terrorism incidents (e.g., bombings, armed assaults, and assassinations) and comprised of incidents reported within 120 months during January 2006 to December 2015. ARIMA interrupted time-series analysis was used to measure the data. In an attempt to address gaps in the literature regarding the link between refugee crises and terrorism, the study hypothesized that the flow of the Syrian refugees in Europe was positively associated with the number of terrorist incidents in Europe. The findings indicated that 10 months after the Syrian refugee crisis there was a significant increase in terrorist attacks. Lastly, Policy implications, limitations and suggestions for future study were discussed in discussions and conclusion.

Emotional Literacy Program and its Effectiveness -Potential Policy Implication in South Korea-

Timothy Scott,백신철(Sin chul Back),최경식(Kyung Shick Choi) 한국범죄심리학회 2015 한국범죄심리연구 Vol.11 No.3

이 연구는 기존의 교정 및 재활 프로그램들이 재범률을 낮추는 것에 부적합하다는 주장들이 제기되고 있어, 그에 대한 대안으로 최근 주목을 받고 있는 정서문해력 프로그램의 활용도와 효과성에 대해 분석하는 것이 그 목적이다. 정서문해력프로그램은 평생 계속되는 폭력과 중독으로부터 수형자들이 희망적이고 건설적인 삶의 패턴을 가지고 사회에 잘 적응할 수 있도록 하는 재활을 목적으로 미국, 영국, 독일을 포함한 8 개국에서 현재 시행되고 있다. 이 연구에서는 전세계의 31개 학술지에 게제된 학술논문을 대상으로 메타분석 (Meta-Analysis)을 통해 정서문해력 프로그램의 활용에 대한 글로벌 트렌드를 실증적으로 검증하였다. 분석결과, 정서문해력 프로그램의 실효성에 대한 평가는 4 가지 요소 - 공감, 마음챙김, 자기조절, 자아존중감 - 가 주요 평가 대상으로 나타났으며, 끝으로 정잭적 제언에 대해 논의하였다. In recent years, implementing emotional literacy programs has been an emerging issue in the justice system; this is due to the fact that existing programs do not adequately minimize recidivism rates. Emotional literacy programs were recently introduced to change lifelong patterns of violence and addiction and to help people in building productive lives. The objective of this study was to examine the effectiveness of emotional literacy programs reflecting 8 multi-nations. A meta-analysis was conducted to delineate the global trend of emotional literacy program usage in justice systems. The data were derived from 31 peer reviewed journal articles about empirical tests and evaluations of emotional literacy program. This study identified 4 major factors - empathy, mindfulness, self-regulation, and self-esteem - that influence the evaluation of the program reflecting justice system worldwide, and the potential policy implications are discussed at the last part of this research.

The Effects of Socioeconomic Factors on Violent and Property CRIMES

Sung Yong-eun,Back Sin-chul,Torres Christopher J-INSTITUTE 2017 Public Value Vol.2 No.1

Due to poor socioeconomic conditions such as declining wages and high unemployment rates, unskilled young people may be drawn to the commission of crime. Several recent studies have found that worsening economic conditions cause social disorder and crime. The purpose of this study is to assess whether various socioeconomic indicators have a positive impact on both violent and property crime rates at the county level within the state of Texas in the United States. The present study hypothesizes that: 1) violent and property crime rates are higher in counties with high levels of poverty; 2) violent and property crime rates are higher in counties with high levels of unemployment; 3) violent and property crime rates are higher in counties with low levels of median household income; 4) violent and property crime rates are higher in counties with low levels of educational attainment. The data used in the analysis was collected from the Uniform Crime Report (UCR) and the United States De-partment of Agriculture: Economic Research Service (USDA) for the year 2015. Within the present study, the total enumeration of counties (254) located in the state of Texas (United States) was designated as the units of analysis. This study measures two dependent variables: violent crime rates and property crime rates. Four unique independent variables were chosen for the analysis based off findings in the current body of literature: (a) poverty, (b) unemployment, (c) median household income, and (d) educational attainment. An Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression model is employed to empirically investigate the relationships between socioec-onomic indicators and crime rates. In addition, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) were employed to demonstrate the link between unemployment, violent crime, and property crime. The findings of the current study reveal that (1) violent crime rates are on average higher in counties with high levels of unemployment; (2) property crime rates are higher on average in counties with higher levels of unemployment. To clarify, a 1 Standard Deviation (SD) unit increase in unemployment predicts a 6% increase in the expected count of violent crime (p < .001). Also, a 1 SD unit increase in unemployment predicts a 29% in-crease in the expected count of property crime (p < .001). Unemployment is the only significant independent variable and can thus be viewed as a possible source of criminality within the counties in Texas. One method of reducing unemployment and ultimately reducing crime is by implementing a community development model. This will lead to the creation of a “community network” that draws local resources, services, and facilities to-gether for the creation of more jobs. The contributions, limitations and suggestions for the future study were discussed in conclusion.

The Role of Technology in Facilitating, Connecting, and Ending CYBERCRIME, Drug Trafficking, and Money Laundering

Mohammed AlQahtani,Raymond Doug Partin,Back Sin-chul,Jo Sung-gu J-INSTITUTE 2019 International Journal of Terrorism & National Secu Vol.4 No.2

This research investigates and shows how technology helped to facilitate and to connect three types of trans-national crimes. More specifically, cybercrimes, drug trafficking, and money laundering. Moreover, technology has helped to facilitate cybercrimes by basically giving birth to them; without the evolution of technology, we would not have had cybercrimes. When ICTs(Information and communication technology) showed up, people all over the world can now have access to the internet which can make some of them vulnerable to cybercriminals. Examples of cybercrimes can include hacking, Ransomware, Identity theft, phishing emails, Internet Crime Against Children(ICAC), industrial espionage, and fraud. As for drug trafficking, technology has helped to facilitate this type of cybercrime by basically giving dealers and consumers a safe atmosphere where they can make deals and payments from anywhere in the world without the need of physical appearance which makes them less exposed to getting arrested. Examples of electronic drug trading are the hidden market places in the darknet. As for money laundering, technology has provided money launderers the ability to establish online offshore companies and banks that have fewer restrictions on money laundering; this method helps criminals to wash their money in countries with no or few laws that prohibit and investigate unknown income sources. Furthermore, technology has provided online banking which gives people the ability to make online transactions; cybercrimi-nals can easily blend their illicit transactions with the illicit ones with less chance of getting noticed. Other than facilitating those crimes, technology has also helped to connect those three types of crimes. Cy-bercriminals help drug dealers with coding and providing cyberspace, both cybercriminals and drug traffickers launder their money to have legit unquestionable income. As for recommended policy implications, nations should keep updating their laws in order to properly prose-cute those types of crimes, more education for law enforcement agencies should by implied as well along with more awareness to the public to avoid victimization.

A Comparative Analysis of VOLUNTEER Officers from the United States and the United Kingdom

Raymond Doug Partin,Mohammed AlQahtani,Back Sin-chul,Jo Sung-gu J-INSTITUTE 2019 Regulations Vol.4 No.2

The use of volunteer officers provides numerous benefits for law enforcement agencies, including the ability to increase trust between police and the community, to reduce the workload of a department, and to maintain or extend services without further depleting a budget. The United States and the United Kingdom both employ the use of volunteer officers. However, there has been little comparative work on these two areas of the policing system. This research first discusses the volunteer system of policing in both the United States and United King-dom, followed by findings on the confidence of officers from both areas as they relate to police duties. While Britain’s form of policing greatly influenced American policing, the two do not have the same policing system. There are a few major differences between these aspects of the policing system for both countries. First, the decentralized system in the United States does not have a standardized recruitment or training procedure. However, there are minimum requirements set forth by the individual state or federal agencies(e.g., the FBI, CIA, DEA, etc.). Within the United Kingdom, the centralized nature sets forth a standardized recruitment and training procedure that, for every department, is overseen by the government. Aside from the nature of the policing sys-tem, when compared to reserve deputies in Florida, special constables(who are similar in function and power to reserve deputies) receive much less training. Further, special constables echo this reality in their self-reporting, where far fewer special constables believed their training to be adequate in preparation for police duties com-pared to reserve deputies in Florida(3.2% vs. 37.5%). Additionally, special constables were less confident in their ability to conduct interviews and administrative tasks. Policy implications and limitations of the present study are also discussed.

13.56㎒로 여기되는 도파관 CO₂ 레이저의 동작특성 및 Xe 첨가효과

김영식(Yeong-Sik Kim),권혁상(Hyuk-Sang Kwon),신교철(Kyo-Chul Sin),백찬기(Chan-Gi Back),김윤명(Youn-Myung Kim),박재환(Jae-Whan Park) 한국광학회 1992 한국광학회지 Vol.3 No.4

금속(stainless steel)과 판유리를 이용한 도파관 탄산가스 레이저를 제작하고 출력특성을 조사하였다. 도파관의 길이는 50 ㎝, 내부 단면적은 6×6 ㎟이며 13.56 ㎒의 고주파로 횡여기시키는 방식이다. 가스 밀폐형으로 동작될 때 입력전력과 가스압력 변화에 의한 레이저 출력의 측정 결과 가스 분압비 He : Co₂ : N₂ : Xe=6 : 1 : 2: 1, 전체 가스압력 50 Torr, 고주파 입력전력이 180 W인 조건에서 최대출력 9.5W로 발진하고 있다. A sealed-off waveguide CO₂ laser with a length of 50 ㎝ and a cross-sectional area of 6 6 ㎟ has been designed and constructed. The laser is transversely excited by RF (13.56 ㎒) discharge. Output characteristics of the laser has been investigated performing variations of total gas pressure, input rf power, and mixing ratios of gases. The maximum output power of 9.5 W was obtained under the condition of total gas pressure of 50 Torr, input rf power of 180 W, and gas mixture of 6 : 1 : 2 : 1 of He : CO₂ : N₂ : Xe.