Modern battery technology

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS = 14
• PREFACE = 15
• INTRODUCTION = 17
• 1.1 Types of battery = 19
• 1.2 Battery design = 20
• 1. HISTORICAL REVIEW OF BATTERY DEVELOPMENT AND COMMERCIALIZATION (A. J. Salkind) = 23
• 2. THE CHEMISTRY AND ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF BATTERY SYSTEMS (C. D. S. Tuck, 2.1 to 2.4 and A. Gilmour, 2.5) = 31
• 2.1 The thermodynamics of battery systems = 31
• 2.1.1 The equilibrium cell potential = 31
• 2.1.2 The effect of electrolyte concentration on cell voltage = 35
• 2.2 The electrochemistry of battery systems = 36
• 2.2.1 Voltage losses of operating cells = 37
• 2.2.2 Faraday's laws of electrolysis = 38
• 2.2.3 The kinetics of electrode charge transfer = 39
• 2.2.4 The kinetics of cell mass transport = 42
• 2.2.5 Inefficiencies of battery operation = 43
• 2.2.5.1 Self-discharge processes = 43
• 2.2.5.2 Passivation processes = 45
• 2.2.5.3 Rechargeable battery inefficiencies = 46
• 2.3 Electrochemical techniques used in the development of batteries = 48
• 2.3.1 Single electrode studies = 49
• 2.3.1.1 D.C. techniques = 49
• 2.3.1.2 A.C. techniques = 53
• 2.3.2 Whole unit (two-electrode) studies = 56
• 2.3.2.1 D.C. techniques = 56
• 2.3.2.2 A.C. techniques = 58
• 2.4 Physical techniques used in the development of batteries = 60
• 2.4.1 Electron microscopy = 61
• 2.4.1.1 Scanning electron microscopy = 61
• 2.4.1.2 Transmission electron microscopy = 65
• 2.4.2 X-ray diffraction and neutron diffraction = 65
• 2.4.3 Extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) = 67
• 2.4.4 Electron spectroscopy = 69
• 2.4.5 Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) = 70
• 2.4.6 Infrared and Raman spectroscopy = 70
• 2.4.7 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential thermal analysis (DTA) = 73
• 2.5 Physical techniques used in the analysis of particulate battery materials (A. Gilmour) = 75
• 2.5.1 Measurement of surface area = 75
• 2.5.2 Porosity and density measurement = 77
• 2.5.3 Particle sizing and counting = 80
• 3. COMMERCIAL NON-RECHARGEABLE BATTERY SYSTEMS = 87
• 3.1 Zinc-carbon batteries (B. Schumm) = 87
• 3.1.1 Introduction = 87
• 3.1.2 Manufacturers = 88
• 3.1.3 Chemistry of zinc-carbon systems = 89
• 3.1.4 Types of zinc-carbon cell = 97
• 3.1.5 Construction details = 97
• 3.1.6 Cell or battery performance = 102
• 3.1.7 Future developments = 110
• 3.2 Alkaline-manganese batteries (J. C. Hunter) = 111
• 3.2.1 Introduction = 111
• 3.2.2 History = 112
• 3.2.3 Battery sizes, applications = 112
• 3.2.4 Battery construction features = 113
• 3.2.5 Chemistry of the alkaline-manganese battery = 115
• 3.2.6 Materials used in the alkaline-manganese battery = 117
• 3.2.7 Performance characteristics = 118
• 3.2.7.1 General = 118
• 3.2.7.2 Input capacity = 118
• 3.2.7.3 Output capacity = 119
• 3.2.7.4 Effect of temperature on discharge performance = 121
• 3.2.7.5 Storage of batteries = 122
• 3.2.7.6 Resistance to leakage = 123
• 3.2.7.7 Battery cost = 124
• 3.2.7.8 Summary = 124
• 3.2.8 Likely future developments = 124
• 3.3 Small-size alkaline batteries (E. A. Megahed) = 125
• 3.3.1 Definitions = 125
• 3.3.2 History: 'Necessity leads to invention' = 125
• 3.3.3 Chemistry = 126
• 3.3.4 Cell construction = 133
• 3.3.5 System characteristics and application performance = 137
• 3.3.5.1 Hearing aid batteries = 137
• 3.3.5.2 Watch batteries = 147
• 3.3.6 Available sizes and types = 155
• 3.3.6.1 Hearing aid batteries = 155
• 3.3.6.2 Watch batteries = 155
• 3.3.7 Further product development = 155
• 3.4 Large zinc-air batteries (V. H. Vu) = 160
• 3.4.1 History = 160
• 3.4.2 General characteristics = 161
• 3.4.3 Cell chemistry = 161
• 3.4.4 Cell components = 162
• 3.4.4.1 Carbon cathode = 162
• 3.4.4.2 Electrolyte = 170
• 3.4.4.3 Zinc anode = 175
• 3.4.4.4 Miscellaneous materials = 177
• 3.4.5 Cell design and construction details = 177
• 3.4.5.1 Wet air-depolarized batteries = 177
• 3.4.5.2 Air-depolarized batteries with gelled electrolyte = 179
• 3.4.6 Applications = 185
• 3.4.7 Likely future developments = 185
• 4. RECHARGEABLE BATTERY SYSTEMS = 194
• 4.1 Lead-acid batteries (K. Peters) = 194
• 4.1.1 Historical notes and general characteristics = 194
• 4.1.2 Materials and structural features = 196
• 4.1.2.1 Negative active material = 196
• 4.1.2.2 Positive active material = 197
• 4.1.2.3 Grid alloys = 199
• 4.1.2.4 Electrolyte = 200
• 4.1.2.5 Separators = 202
• 4.1.3 Basic characteristics = 203
• 4.1.3.1 Discharge behaviour = 204
• 4.1.3.2 Charging behaviour = 207
• 4.1.3.3 Self-discharge behaviour = 210
• 4.1.3.4 Gas recombination behaviour = 211
• 4.1.4 Construction and performance = 213
• 4.1.4.1 S.L.I. (automotive) batteries = 213
• 4.1.4.2 Motive power batteries = 219
• 4.1.4.3 Standby batteries = 227
• 4.1.4.4 Portable equipment and electrical appliances = 235
• 4.1.4.5 Other applications = 241
• 4.1.4.6 Storage of renewable energy = 243
• 4.2 Nickel-cadmium batteries = 244
• Introduction (C. P. Albon and J. Parker) = 244
• 4.2.1 Pocket plate cells (C. P. Albon and J. Parker) = 246
• 4.2.1.1 Construction = 246
• 4.2.1.2 Reaction mechanisms of nickel-cadmium cells = 254
• 4.2.1.3 Battery technology = 258
• 4.2.1.4 Recent developments = 262
• 4.2.2 Sealed cylindrical nickel-cadmium cells (R. N. Thomas) = 263
• 4.2.2.1 Introduction = 263
• 4.2.2.2 Construction = 264
• 4.2.2.3 Electrical characteristics = 266
• 4.2.2.4 Applications and battery design = 277
• 4.2.2.5 Future prospects = 283
• 5. LITHIUM BATTERY SYSTEMS = 287
• 5.1 Lithium-thionyl chloride batteries (H. F. Gibbard and T. B. Reddy) = 287
• 5.1.1 General characteristics = 287
• 5.1.2 Manufacturers = 288
• 5.1.3 Chemistry = 288
• 5.1.3.1 Cell reaction = 288
• 5.1.3.2 Safety = 289
• 5.1.4 Construction details = 289
• 5.1.4.1 Materials = 289
• 5.1.4.2 Bobbin cells = 291
• 5.1.4.3 Wound cells = 294
• 5.1.4.4 Prismatic cells = 302
• 5.1.4.5 Reserve cells = 307
• 5.1.5 Likely future development = 310
• 5.1.5.1 General improvements = 310
• 5.1.5.2 Improvements in low-rate cells = 311
• 5.1.5.3 Improvements in moderate- and high-rate cells = 312
• 5.2 Lithium-sulphur dioxide batteries (T. B. Reddy) = 312
• 5.2.1 Historical background = 312
• 5.2.2 Technical advantages = 313
• 5.2.3 Chemistry and electrochemistry = 314
• 5.2.3.1 Electrode and cell reactions = 314
• 5.2.3.2 Electrolyte composition and properties = 314
• 5.2.3.3 Balanced cell concept = 316
• 5.2.4 Cell construction = 316
• 5.2.4.1 Spiral wound construction in hermetically sealed case = 317
• 5.2.4.2 Cell case material = 318
• 5.2.4.3 Cathode construction = 318
• 5.2.4.4 Anode construction = 318
• 5.2.4.5 Separators and insulators = 318
• 5.2.4.6 Vent designs = 319
• 5.2.4.7 Glass-to-metal seals = 319
• 5.2.5 Commercially available cells and their performance = 320
• 5.2.5.1 Commercially available cells = 321
• 5.2.5.2 Cell performance = 323
• 5.2.5.3 Safety considerations in the use of lithium-sulphur dioxide cells = 327
• 5.2.6 Battery design and performance = 327
• 5.2.6.1 Battery design = 327
• 5.2.6.2 Fuses, diodes, and discharge circuits = 327
• 5.2.6.3 Other design considerations = 328
• 5.2.6.4 US military battery types = 328
• 5.2.6.5 Performance of BA-5598 batteries = 330
• 5.2.7 Applications of lithium-sulphur dioxide cells and batteries = 331
• 5.2.7.1 Industrial and electronic applications = 333
• 5.2.7.2 Military applications = 334
• 5.2.8 Conclusions = 334
• 5.3 Lithium-carbon monofluoride batteries (D. Eyre and C. D. S. Tuck) = 336
• 5.3.1 Introduction = 336
• 5.3.2 Manufacturers = 336
• 5.3.3 Chemistry and cell components = 337
• 5.3.4 Cell types and performance = 339
• 5.3.4.1 Cylindrical cells = 339
• 5.3.4.2 Coin cells = 340
• 5.3.4.3 Pin-type cells = 340
• 5.3.5 Conclusion = 345
• 5.4 Lithium-manganese dioxide batteries (S. Narukawa and N. Furukawa) = 348
• 5.4.1 General characteristics = 348
• 5.4.2 Manufacturers/statistics = 349
• 5.4.3 Chemistry = 349
• 5.4.4 Construction details = 352
• 5.4.4.1 Flat-type batteries = 352
• 5.4.4.2 Cylindrical type batteries = 352
• 5.4.5 Cell types available and applications = 352
• 5.4.6 Performance characteristics = 353
• 5.4.6.1 Flat-type batteries = 353
• 5.4.6.2 Cylindrical batteries (inside-out structure) = 356
• 5.4.6.3 Cylindrical batteries (spiral structure) = 358
• 5.4.7 Likely future developments = 365
• 5.5 Lithium-iodine batteries (J. Jolson, S. Wicelinski, and D. Schrodt) = 365
• 5.5.1 History = 366
• 5.5.2 Chemistry = 367
• 5.5.3 Medical use = 368
• 5.5.3.1 Available types = 369
• 5.5.3.2 Construction = 370
• 5.5.3.3 Performance characteristics = 374
• 5.5.4 Industrial use = 377
• 5.5.4.1 Available types = 378
• 5.5.4.2 Construction = 379
• 5.5.4.3 Performance characteristics = 380
• 5.5.5 Likely future developments = 381
• 5.6 Lithium-copper oxide batteries (A. E. Brown) = 383
• 5.6.1 Introduction = 383
• 5.6.2 Manufacturers = 384
• 5.6.3 Construction = 384
• 5.6.3.1 Anode assembly = 385
• 5.6.3.2 Cathode assembly = 385
• 5.6.3.3 Electrolyte = 385
• 5.6.3.4 Separator = 385
• 5.6.3.5 Sealing = 385
• 5.6.4 Performance = 385
• 5.6.5 Storage = 387
• 5.6.6 Chemistry = 388
• 5.6.7 Safety = 392
• 5.7 Lithium-vanadium pentoxide batteries (H. V. Venkatasetty) = 393
• 5.7.1 Cell design and performance = 393
• 5.7.2 Stability and safety = 399
• 5.7.3 Lithium-vanadium pentoxide medical batteries = 400
• 5.7.4 Lithium-silver vanadium pentoxide batteries = 401
• 5.8 Lithium-iron disulphide batteries (A. Gilmour) = 402
• 5.8.1 Introduction = 402
• 5.8.2 Chemistry = 403
• 5.8.3 Cell designs = 403
• 5.8.4 Performance of the Li-Fe$$S_2$$ system = 404
• 5.8.5 Discharge mechanisms of the Li-Fe$$S_2$$ system = 406
• 5.8.6 The market's reaction to the Li-Fe$$S_2$$ system = 407
• 5.9 Lithium-anode thermal batteries (A. Attewell) = 409
• 5.9.1 Introduction = 409
• 5.9.2 Battery construction = 410
• 5.9.3 Cell components and electrochemistry = 413
• 5.9.3.1 The lithium anode = 414
• 5.9.3.2 Electrolytes = 414
• 5.9.3.3 Cathodes = 415
• 5.9.4 The pyrotechnic = 416
• 5.9.5 Computer modelling = 417
• 5.9.6 The performance of thermal batteries = 417
• 5.9.7 The use of thermal batteries = 419
• 5.9.8 Alternatives to thermal batteries = 422
• 5.9.9 Major suppliers of thermal batteries = 422
• 5.9.10 The future = 422
• 5.10 Lithium-molybdenum disulphide rechargeable batteries (F. C. Laman) = 423
• 5.10.1 Introduction = 423
• 5.10.2 Cell chemistry and operation = 423
• 5.10.3 Construction = 425
• 5.10.4 Electrical characteristics = 426
• 5.10.4.1 Cell voltage = 426
• 5.10.4.2 Internal resistance = 428
• 5.10.4.3 Energy efficiency = 429
• 5.10.4.4 Charge requirement = 429
• 5.10.5 Performance characteristics = 430
• 5.10.5.1 Deliverable capacity = 430
• 5.10.5.2 Cycle life = 434
• 5.10.5.3 Charge retention = 437
• 5.10.6 Safety = 437
• 5.10.6.1 Electrical abuse test results = 437
• 5.10.7 Shipping and handling = 438
• 5.10.8 Reproducibility and reliability = 439
• 5.10.8.1 Single cells = 439
• 5.10.8.2 Multi-cell batteries = 441
• 5.10.9 Future developments = 443
• 5.10.10 Summary = 443
• 6. SYSTEMS UNDER DEVELOPMENT = 452
• 6.1 Nickel-zinc batteries (A. Duffield) = 452
• 6.1.1 The nickel-zinc system = 452
• 6.1.2 Cell and battery construction and performance = 456
• 6.1.3 The future for nickel-zinc = 458
• 6.2 Sodium-sulphur batteries (M. McNamee) = 458
• 6.2.1 Introduction = 458
• 6.2.2 Performance characteristics = 461
• 6.2.3 Cell construction = 463
• 6.2.4 The battery system = 464
• 6.2.5 Development status = 469
• 6.3 Nickel-hydrogen batteries (J. J. Smithrick) = 472
• 6.3.1 General characteristics = 472
• 6.3.2 Manufacturers and experience = 473
• 6.3.3 Chemistry = 474
• 6.3.3.1 Normal operation = 474
• 6.3.3.2 Overcharge = 474
• 6.3.3.3 Reversal = 475
• 6.3.4 Cell construction = 475
• 6.3.4.1 Air Force/Hughes cell = 475
• 6.3.4.2 Comsat/Intelsat cell = 476
• 6.3.4.3 NASA Advanced cell = 476
• 6.3.5 Battery information = 477
• 6.3.6 Cell performance = 478
• 6.3.6.1 Discharge = 478
• 6.3.6.2 Charge = 480
• 6.3.6.3 State-of-charge = 480
• 6.3.6.4 Capacity retention = 482
• 6.3.6.5 Life test = 483
• 6.3.6.6 Storage = 485
• 6.3.7 Likely future developments = 486
• 6.4 Aluminium-air batteries (C. D. S. Tuck) = 487
• 6.4.1 Historical introduction = 487
• 6.4.2 Chemistry of the system = 489
• 6.4.3 Anode development = 490
• 6.4.4 Air cathode development = 494
• 6.4.5 Electrolyte management = 496
• 6.4.6 Commercial battery development = 498
• 6.4.7 Future developments = 500
• 6.5 Zinc-bromine batteries (A. Leo) = 502
• 6.5.1 Introduction = 502
• 6.5.2 Battery configuration = 505
• 6.5.3 Bipolar stack shunt current management = 506
• 6.5.4 Stack fabrication and sealing methods = 508
• 6.5.5 Materials of construction = 509
• 6.5.6 System design = 511
• 6.5.7 Battery performance characteristics = 512
• 6.5.8 Technology status = 514
• 6.6 Rechargeable lithium-iron sulphide batteries (H. F. Gibbard) = 516
• 6.6.1 General characteristics = 516
• 6.6.2 Manufacturers = 519
• 6.6.3 Chemistry = 519
• 6.6.3.1 Negative electrode = 519
• 6.6.3.2 Positive electrode = 520
• 6.6.3.3 Negative-to-positive capacity ratio = 521
• 6.6.3.4 Separator = 521
• 6.6.4 Construction = 522
• 6.6.5 Performance = 525
• 6.6.6 Future developments = 527
• 6.7 Lithium solid state batteries (R. J. Neat) = 528
• 6.7.1 Introduction = 528
• 6.7.2 The cell components = 529
• 6.7.2.1 Lithium anodes = 529
• 6.7.2.2 Polymer electrolytes = 529
• 6.7.2.3 Intercalation composite cathodes = 530
• 6.7.2.4 Component fabrication = 531
• 6.7.2.5 Cell fabrication = 532
• 6.7.3 Cell performance = 532
• 6.7.4 'Room temperature' performance = 535
• 6.7.5 Summary = 537
• APPENDICES = 544
• Appendix A. Performance characteristics of battery systems included in this volume (in alphabetical order of common name) = 544
• Appendix B. Standard potentials of electrodes: reactions at 25°C (in alphabetical order of reacting component) = 559
• Appendix C. Electrochemical equivalents per mass and volume of possible battery electrode elements and compounds = 561
• Appendix D. Conversion tables and physical constants = 563
• INDEX = 567