Towrd an environmental strategy for Asia

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• FOREWORD = ⅶ
• ABSTRACT = ⅸ
• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS = ⅹ
• ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS AND DATA NOTES = xi
• EXECUTIVE SUMMARY = 1
• INTRODUCTION = 19
• 1 THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT IN ASIA = 21
• Trends and Impacts of Environmental Degradation = 21
• The Underlying Causes of Environmental Degradation = 27
• 2 A FRAMEWORK FOR IMPROVING ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT = 33
• Actions Required = 33
• "Top-Down" Versus "Bottom-Up" = 41
• Economic and Social Impacts of Improved Environmental Management = 43
• 3 URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT = 47
• Urbanization in Asia = 47
• Tackling Key Environmental Problems = 52
• Institutional Framework = 56
• The World Bank's Role in Urban Development = 59
• 4 APPROACHES TO INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION = 65
• Overview of the Problem = 65
• Addressing Pollution Problems = 73
• The World Bank's Role in Pollution Abatement = 83
• 5 MINIMIZING ENERGY SECTOR IMPACTS = 89
• The Energy and Power Sectors = 89
• Minimizing Energy Sector Environmental Impacts = 96
• Technical Approaches to Cleaner Energy = 102
• Mitigating the Environmental Impact of the Asian Energy Sector = 108
• The World Bank's Role in Energy and the Environment = 109
• 6 NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT : LAND, FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY = 115
• Land Resource Problems = 115
• Underlying Causes of Natural Resource Degradation = 122
• A General Strategy for Natural Resource Management = 127
• Technical Approaches to Land Resource Management = 129
• The World Bank's Role in Natural Resource Management = 134
• 7 WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT = 139
• Water Resource Problems = 139
• Environmental Considerations in Water Resource Development = 144
• A Comprehensive Framework for Water Resource Management = 147
• The World Bank's Role in Water Resource Development = 153
• 8 THE WORLD BANK ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY = 159
• Setting Priorities ― an Ongoing Process = 159
• Priority Areas for Investment = 159
• Beyond Project Lending = 162
• Lew Analytical Work = 165
• Next Steps = 166
• APPENDIX A : Statistical Profile of Key Environmental Issues in Asia = 169
• APPENDIX B : Analysis of the World Bank Project Pipeline(Fiscal 1993 - 95) = 189
• APPENDIX C : Environmental Activities by Various Donors in Asia = 197
• BIBLIOGRAPHY = 201
• BOXES
• Box 1 : World Bank Priorities for the Environment = 15
• Box 1.1 : Water Pollution in New Delhi = 22
• Box 1.2 : Megacities in Asia = 31
• Box 2.1 : An Analytical Approach to Setting Priorities = 34
• Box 2.2 : Policy and Entrepreneurial Responses to the Montreal Protocol : Evidence from the Dynamic Asian Economies = 36
• Box 2.3 : Potential Gains from Forestry Policy Reform in Indonesia = 37
• Box 2.4 : "Best Practices" for Strengthening Environmental Institutions = 39
• Box 2.5 : Examples of Commercial Credit for Pollution Control = 40
• Box 2.6 : Approaches to Making Environmental Interventions More Self-Financing = 41
• Box 2.7 : Global Environmental Operations = 42
• Box 2.8 : Technological Requirements for Improving the Environment = 43
• Box 2.9 : A Framework for Improving the Environment = 44
• Box 3.1 : Sewage Treatment in India = 49
• Box 3.2 : Institutional Arrangements in Jakarta = 56
• Box 3.3 : The Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program(MEIP) = 58
• Box 3.4 : The Beijing Environment Project = 60
• Box 3.5 : The East Java / Bali Urban Development Project = 61
• Box 3.6 : Mass Transit and the Asia Urban Transport Agenda = 61
• Box 3.7 : The Singrauli Development and Environmental Strategy Study = 61
• Box 3.8 : Urban Environmental Projects in Asia = 63
• Box 4.1 : Industrial Pollution in Beijing = 66
• Box 4.2 : Leather Tanning in Asia = 69
• Box 4.3 : Water Pollution from the Iron and Steel Industry in India = 69
• Box 4.4 : Industrial Pollution in Surabaya, Indonesia = 70
• Box 4.5 : Industrial Accident at Bhopal = 71
• Box 4.6 : Industrial Pollution and Health in Thailand = 72
• Box 4.7 : Industrial Output Share of Small-and Medium-Scaie Industries = 74
• Box 4.8 : The Pollution Discharge Permit System in Beijing = 75
• Box 4.9 : Subsidies and Industrial Pollution Abatement : Why and When = 77
• Box 4.10 : Cost-Effective Clean Technolgy Investments in the United States = 81
• Box 4.11 : Industrial Pollution Project in India = 82
• Box 4.12 : The Chronology of Pollution Control : A Case Study from Malaysia = 83
• Box 4.13 : Direct Lending for Industrial Poliution Management = 86
• Box 5.1 : Demand-Side Management = 100
• Box 5.2 : Energy Efficiency in China = 101
• Box 5.3 : The Prospects of Nuclear Power in Asia = 105
• Box 5.4 : Innovative World Bank Alternative Energy Projects = 110
• Box 6.1 : Types of Land Degradation = 117
• Box 6.2 : Impacts of Deforestation = 125
• Box 6.3 : Subsidies on Agricultural Inputs = 125
• Box 6.4 : The Relationship Between Land Tenure and Conservation in Asia = 126
• Box 6.5 : Elimination of Pesticide Subsidies in Indonesia = 130
• Box 6.6 : Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects(SCARPS) in Pakistan = 130
• Box 6.7 : Vetiver Grass = 132
• Box 6.8 : Vetiver Network = 135
• Box 7.1 : Water Demand in India = 140
• Box 7.2 : Water Quality Constraints in the Hun-Taizi River Basin = 142
• Box 7.3 : Increasing Costs of Water Supply in Chinese Cities = 142
• Box 7.4 : Pollution in Hangzhou Bay and Zhousan Fishing Area = 142
• Box 7.5 : Ecological Damage Due to Low Water Flows = 144
• Box 7.6 : Overdevelopment of Water Resources in South India = 144
• Box 7.7 : South to North Water Transfers in China = 146
• Box 7.8 : Land Subsidence in Bangkok = 147
• Box 7.9 : Water User Associations = 150
• Box 7.10 : Environmental Impact Assesment of the Pak Mun Hydropower Project in Thailand = 151
• Box 7.11 : World Bank Role in Water Resource Management = 155
• Box 7.12 : Future World Bank Research Projects = 156
• Box 8.1 : World Bank Priorities for the Environment = 160
• Box 8.2 : Innovative Institutional Strengthening Projects = 163
• Box 8.3 : The National Environmental Action Plan for Sri Lanka = 164
• Box 8.4 : Revising Environmental Standards = 165
• Box 8.5 : Priority Areas For Additional Environment-Related Analytical Work = 167
• Box B.1 : What are Environment Projects? = 189
• Box B.2 : Traditional Versus Newer Approaches to World Bank Environmental Lending = 193
• FIGURES
• Figure 1.1 : Emissions in Greater Bombay = 23
• Figure 1.2 : Incremental Carbon Dioxide Emissions 1990 - 2000 = 24
• Figure 1.3 : Current and Projected SO₂Emissions = 25
• Figure 1.4 : Solid Waste Generated in Asian Cities = 26
• Figure 1.5 : Population Growth = 30
• Figure 1.6 : Number of Poor = 30
• Figure 1.7 : Growth of Urban and Rural Popoulations in Asia 1965-2025 = 31
• Figure 3.1 : Number of Cities in Asia by Size, 1960 - 2000 = 47
• Figure 3.2 : Incidence of Poverty in India 1961 - 89 = 48
• Figure 3.3 : Total Motor Vehicles in Use in Selected Asian Countries = 50
• Figure 3.4 : Total Bank Lending and Bank Finance of Environmental Components for Urban / Infrastructure Projects in the Asia Region, Fiscal 1990 - 92 and Fiscal 1993 - 95 = 62
• Figure 4.1 : Estimated Total Pollution in Selected Asian Countries = 67
• Figure 4.2 : Geographic Distrivution of Industrial Output = 68
• Figure 4.3 : Industry Toxicity Indicators = 73
• Figure 4.4 : Total Bank Lending and Bank Finance of Environmental Components for Industry Projects in the Asian Regions, Fiscal 1990 - 92 and Fiscal 1993 - 95 = 84
• Figure 5.1 : Growth of Electricity Consumption and GDP in Selected Asian Countries 1980 - 90 = 89
• Figure 5.2 : Total Energy Requirement in Asia, 1989 = 90
• Figure 5.3 : Energy Consumption in Asia 1989 = 91
• Figure 5.4 : Projected Carbon Dioxide Emessions, 1990 and 2000 = 93
• Figure 5.5 : Current and Projected SO₂Emissions = 94
• Figure 5.6 : Household Energy Ladder for South Asia = 95
• Figure 5.7 : Energy Intensity in Asia(1989) = 99
• Figure 5.8 : Range of Costs in Power Generation = 106
• Figure 5.9 : Range of Incremental Costs of Emission Control = 106
• Figure 5.10 : Cost of Electrecity in Rural Areas = 108
• Figure 5.11 : Total Bank Lending and Bank Finance of Environmental Components for Energy Projects in the Asian Regions, Fiscal 1990 - 92 and Fiscal 1993 - 95 = 111
• Figure 6.1 : Cereal Procuction Increase, Broken Doun into Yield Increase and Area Expansion, 1961-90 = 116
• Figure 6.2 : Deforestation, 1981-90 = 120
• Figure 6.3 : Bank Lending in Land Resources in the Asian Regions = 135
• Figure 7.1 : Per Capita Availability of Water in Selected Asian Countries = 141
• Figure 7.2 : Major River Basins in Asia = 141
• Figure 7.3 : Freshwater Withdrawals by Sector in Selected Asian Countries = 143
• Figure 7.4 : Annual Withdrawal of Water Resources = 143
• Figure 7.5 : Large Dams in China and India = 145
• Figure 7.6 : Environmental Impacts of Interbasin Transfers = 146
• Figure 7.7 : Conserving Water as an Alternative to Expanding Supply in Beijing = 149
• Figure 7.8 : Lending for Water Resources in the East Asia and South Asia Regions = 154
• Figure 8.1 : Amount of Bank Lending for Environment Projects and Environmental Components in the Asian Regions by Sector, Fiscal 1993 - 95 = 161
• Figure 8.2 : Amount of Bank Lending for the Environment, Fiscal 1990-95 = 162
• Figure 8.3 : Applying the Asia Environmental Strategy = 168
• Figure B.1 : Total Bank Lending and Bank Finance of Environmental Components in the Asian Regions = 191
• Figure B.2 : Amount of Bank Finance for Traditional and New Environmental Projects in Asia by Sector, Fiscal 1990 - 92 and Fiscal 1993 - 95 = 192
• Figure B.3 : Bank Lending in the Brown Sector Asian Regions, Fiscal 1990 - 92 and Fiscal 1993 - 95 = 194
• Figure B.4 : Bank Lending in the Green(Natural Resources) Sector Asian Regions, Fiscal 1990 - 92 and Fiscal 1993 - 95 = 195
• Figure C.1 : Amount of Comvined Donor Environmental Funding in Asia, 1991 = 197
• TABLES
• Table 1.1 : Air Pollution in Asian Cities = 22
• Table 2.1 : Estimates of Additional Investment Required for the Environment in Asia by 2000 = 40
• Table 3.1 : Contribution of Motor Vehicles to Air Pollution in Selected Asian Cities = 50
• Table 3.2 : Solid Waste Generated in Asian Cities = 51
• Table 3.3 : Annual Cost of Congestion and Air Pollution in Some Asian Cities = 52
• Table 3.4 : A Taxonomy of Instruments to Control Automotive Air Pollution = 54
• Table 3.5 : Urban Mass Transit Systems in Asia = 55
• Table 4.1 : Industrial Production Growth Factors in Asian Economies, 1965 - 90 = 65
• Table 4.2 : Growth Factors of Toxicity Intensity of Production = 74
• Table 4.3 : Agencies and Legislation for Industrial Pollution = 75
• Table 4.4 : Market-Based Policy Instruments to Reduce Pollution = 76
• Table 4.5 : Direct Industrial Lending in Asia, 1989 - 95 = 85
• Table 5.1 : Major Direct and Indirect Environmental Impacts of Fossil Fuels = 92
• Table 5.2 : Acid Rain in Asia = 94
• Table 5.3 : Energy Pricing in Selected Asian Countries = 98
• Table 5.4 : Costs of Renewable Electricity, 1980 - 2030 = 107
• Table 5.5 : Estimated Carbon Dioxide Emessions from the Use of Fossil Fuels in Asian Developing Countries = 109
• Table 5.6 : Energy Sector Projects with Environmental Components = 110
• Table 6.1 : Countries in Asia with Extensive Grassland = 116
• Table 6.2 : Forest Areas in Asian Countries, 1989 = 117
• Table 6.3 : Estimates of Land Affected by Soil Degradation in Selected Asian Countries = 117
• Table 6.4 : Area Affected by Shifting Cultivation in Asia = 121
• Table 6.5 : Loss of Original Habitat in the Indo-Malayan Realm = 122
• Table 6.6 : Counties in Asia Which Do Not Meet Basic Dietary Requirements = 123
• Table 7.1 : Bank-supported Water Resources Development Projects by Country and Type(1948 - 90) = 154
• Table 8.1 : Current and Planned Economic and Sector Work(ESW) with an Environmental Emphasis, 1993 - 95 = 166
• Table A.1 : Basic Indicators = 170
• Table A.2 : Structure of Production, 1965 and 1990 = 171
• Table A.3 : Growth of Production 1965 - 80 and 1980 - 90 = 172
• Table A.4 : Total Population and Average Growth Rate, 1960 - 2025 = 173
• Table A.5 : Population(1950 - 2000) of Urban Areas in Asia with 4 Million or More Inhabitants in 1990 = 174
• Table A.6 : Urban Population in Asia, 1960 - 2025 = 175
• Table A.7 : Access to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation in Urban Areas in Asia, 1988 = 176
• Table A.8 : Total Motor Vehicles in Use in Selected Asian Countries, 1965 - 89 = 177
• Table A.9 : Energy Consumption in Asia, 1980 - 90 = 178
• Table A.10 : Fossil Fuel Consumption in Asia, 1990 = 179
• Table A.11 : Power Sector : Projected Installed Capacity(1999) and Average Annual Growth Rate(1989 - 99) = 180
• Table A.12 : Structure of Manufacturing, 1970 and 1989 = 181
• Table A.13 : Share and Growth of Some "Dirty" and "Clean" Industrial Sectors in Selected Countries in Asia = 182
• Table A.14 : Selected Air and Water Quality Indicators = 183
• Table A.15 : Land Use in Asia, 1989 = 184
• Table A.16 : Cropland in Asia, 1989 = 185
• Table A.17 : Area Expansion and Yield Effeets of Cereal Production, 1961 - 63 and 1988 - 90 = 186
• Table A.18 : Fertilizer Consumption, 1961 - 63 and 1987 - 89 = 187
• Table C.1 : Environmental Activities in Asia by Different Donors, 1991 = 198