Human rights : universality and diversity

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• GENERAL INTRODUCTION = 1
• PART ONE : Human Rights and the Universality Principle = 3
• Ⅰ. Universality Concepts = 3
• A. General and Would-wide Applicability of Human Rights : All-Inclusiveness = 4
• B. Formal Acceptance = 5
• C Historical Origin = 7
• D. Formal Origin : Norm Creation = 8
• E. Anthropological or Philosophical Acceptance = 9
• F. Functional Acceptance = 10
• G. Multicultural Composition of Human Rights = 10
• H. World-wide Observance of Human Rights = 12
• I. General Opposability of Human Rights = 12
• J. Human Rights as a Legitimate Concern of the International Community = 13
• K. Absence of Double Standards = 13
• L. Priority of Human Rights = 14
• M. Indivisibility of Human Rights = 14
• N. Uniformity of Standards = 14
• O. Universality in Time = 15
• P Universality as a Process = 15
• Q. Conclusion = 16
• Ⅱ. Brief History of the Universality of Human Rights = 17
• A. Before the Universal Declaration of Human Rights = 17
• B. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Subsequent Evolution = 20
• C. Relativism = 23
• PART TWO : An Analysis of Non-Western Human Rights Claims = 27
• Ⅰ. Introduction = 27
• A. Purpose = 27
• B. Selection of Material = 28
• C. Approach = 31
• Ⅱ. Asian Human Rights Claims = 33
• A. Introduction = 33
• B. Central Texts and Events = 35
• 1. The Singapore School = 36
• 1.1. Situation = 36
• 1.2. General Discourse = 36
• 1.3. The Economic Argument = 38
• 1.4. The Vulnerability Argument = 40
• 1.5. The Cultural Argument = 41
• 1.6. Good Government = 46
• 2. The Beijing White Papers = 50
• 2.1. "China's Practice of Human Rights" = 50
• 2.2. "China's Basic Position on Human Rights" = 51
• 3. The Bangkok Declaration and the Vienna Conference = 55
• 3.1. Situation = 55
• 3.2. The Bangkok Declaration = 56
• 3.2.1. Non-controversial Statements = 56
• 3.2.2. Controversial Statements = 57
• 3.3. The Vienna Conference = 59
• 3.3.1. Statements = 59
• 3.3.1.1. Singapore = 59
• 3.3.1.2. Malaysia = 61
• 3.3.1.3. China = 62
• 3.3.1.4. Indonesia = 63
• 3.3.1.5. Thailand = 64
• 3.3.1.6. Myanmar = 65
• 3.3.1.7. Philippines = 65
• 3.3.1.8. (South) Korea = 66
• 3.3.1.9. Japan = 66
• 3.3.2. The Vienna Declaration = 67
• 3.3.2.1. Sovereignty, Non-interference, Double Standards = 67
• 3.3.2.2. Universality and Indivisibility = 67
• 3.3.2.3. Development and Human Rights = 68
• 3.3.2.4. Parts of the debate Not Mentioned = 69
• 3.4. The Position of NGOs = 69
• 3.4.1. Situation = 69
• 3.4.2. Some Shared Concerns with the Governments = 70
• 3.4.2.1. Universality = 71
• 3.4.2.2. Indivisibility and Economic Concerns = 72
• 3.4.2.3. The Individual and the Community = 72
• 3.4.3. Some Points of Disagreement with the Governments = 72
• 3.4.3.1. The Sovereignty Argument = 73
• 3.4.3 2. The National Security Argument = 73
• 4. Kuala Lumpur Declaration on Human Rights = 75
• 4.1. Traditional Provisions = 75
• 4.2. "Asian" Provisions = 76
• C. Interpretation = 80
• 1. Framework = 80
• 2. Main Claims = 83
• 2.1. International Politics = 84
• 2.2. Economics = 85
• 2.3. The Individual, the Community and the State = 86
• 2.4. Interpretation and Implementation = 87
• 3. Attitude Towards the Universality of Human Rights = 88
• 3.1. Universality and Respect for Diversity = 88
• 3.2. The Role of Culture = 89
• Ⅲ. African Human Rights Views = 91
• A. Introduction = 91
• B. Central Texts and Events = 91
• 1. Legal and Political Texts = 91
• 1.1. The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights = 92
• 1.1.1. Universality and Specificity = 92
• 1.1.2. Peoples' Rights = 95
• 1.1.2.1. General Remarks = 95
• a) Originality of the African Charter = 95
• b) Justification = 96
• c) Beneficiaries and Enforcement = 99
• d) Peoples' Rights and Individual Rights = 100
• 1.1.2.2. Overview of the Articles = 101
• a) Article 19 = 102
• b) Article 20 = 102
• c) Article 21 = 105
• d) Article 22 = 106
• e) Article 23 = 108
• f) Article 24 = 108
• 1.1.3. Individual Duties = 109
• 1.1.3.1. General Remarks = 109
• a) Originality of the African Charter = 109
• b) Justification = 110
• c) Beneficiaries and Enforcement = 112
• d) Individual Duties and Individual Rights = 113
• 1.1.3.2. Overview of the Articles = 114
• a) Article 27 = 114
• b) Article 28 = 115
• c) Article 29 = 115
• 1.1.4. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights = 118
• 1.1.5. Limitation and Derogation = 121
• l.1.5.1. Limitation = 121
• 1.1.5.2. Derogation = 125
• 1.1.6. Choice and Formulation of Specific Rights = 126
• 1.1.6.1. Omission of Rights = 126
• 1.1.6.2. Inclusion and Formulation of Rights = 129
• a) Article 18 = 129
• b) Article 17(3) = 130
• c) Article 7(2) in fine = 130
• d) Article 13(1) = 131
• e) Article 14 = 131
• 1.1.7 Enforcement Mechanism = 131
• 1.1.8 Reception of the Charter = 133
• 1.1.9 Evaluation = 135
• 1.2. The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child = 137
• 1.2.1. Rights protected in both CRC and ACRWC = 138
• 1.2.2. Rights protected only in the ACRWC, not in the CRC = 142
• 1.2.3. Rights protected only in the CRC, not in the ACRWC = 144
• 1.2.4. Evaluation = 144
• 1.3. The Tunis Declaration = 148
• 2. Academic Texts = 151
• 2.1. Traditional Africa = 151
• 2.2. Universality = 156
• 2.3. Communalism = 162
• 2.4. Development and Human Rights = 163
• 2.4.1. Priority of Development over Human Rights = 164
• 2.4.2. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights = 165
• 2.4.3. Conditionality = 166
• 2.5. Stability = 167
• 2.6. Harmful Cultural Practices = 168
• 2.6.1. General Remarks = 168
• 2.6.2. The Example of Female Genital Mutilation = 170
• 2.6.2.1. The Practice = 170
• 2.6.2.2. The Western Campaign and the United Nations = 171
• 2.6.2.3. African Views = 175
• C. Interpretation = 178
• 1. Framework = 178
• 2. Main Claims = 179
• 3. Attitude Towards the Universality of Human Rights = 180
• 3.1. Universality and Respect for Diversity = 180
• 3.2.The Role of Culture = 181
• Ⅳ. Islam and Human Rights Views = 183
• A. Introduction = 183
• B. Central Texts and Events = 183
• 1. Academic Texts = 184
• 1.1 Fundamental Attitude : Different Tendencies = 184
• 1.1.1. Apologetic literature = 185
• 1.1.1.1. Common characteristics = 185
• a) General = 185
• b) Older and Better = 185
• c) The Rights = 187
• 1.1.1.2. Subcategories = 191
• a) Attitude to "Thorny Issues" = 191
• b) Traditionalists and Fundamentalists = 191
• 1.1.2. Appeals for Interpretation = 192
• 1.1.2.1. Situating Ijtihad = 192
• 1.1.2.2 Common Characteristics = 193
• 1.1.2.3 Subcategories = 194
• a) Moderate Muslim Proposals = 194
• b) Radical Muslim Proposals = 196
• c) Non-Muslim Western Authors = 199
• 1.1.3. Secularism = 199
• 1.2. Recurring Themes = 201
• 1.2.1. Universality = 201
• 1.2.1.1. Rejection of Universality = 201
• 1.2.1.2. Ambiguous Attitude Toward Universality in the Apologetic Discourse = 202
• 1.2.1.3. Attitude Toward Universality Among Liberal Muslims = 203
• 1.2.2. Individualism versus Communalism and Rights versus Duties = 204
• 1.2.2.1. The relationship Between the Two Themes = 204
• 1.2.2.2. Individualism v. Communalism = 204
• a) Individualism and Communalism in Islam = 204
• h) Consequences for Claims about Human Rights = 205
• 1.2.2.3. Rights v. Duties = 206
• a) Rights and Duties in Islam = 206
• b) Consequences for Claims about Human Rights = 207
• 1.2.3. The Religious Dimension = 207
• 1.2.4. Areas of Conflict Between Islam and International Human Rights = 208
• 1.2.4.1 Women's Rights = 208
• 1.2.4.2 Freedom of Religion = 209
• a) The Problem = 209
• b) Solving the Problem = 210
• 1.2.4.3 Discrimination on the Basis of Religion = 213
• a) The Problem = 213
• b) Denying or Minimising the Problem = 214
• c) Solving the Problem = 215
• 1.2.4.4. Corporal Punishment = 216
• a) The Problem : Hudud Crimes = 216
• b) Solving the Problem = 217
• 1.2.4.5. Slavery = 219
• 1.2.4.6. Procedural Guarantees = 220
• 1.2.4.7. Democratic Rights = 221
• 1.2.4.8. Other = 222
• 1.3. A Specific Genre : The Debate on Women in Islam = 222
• 1.3.1. Fundamental Attitude : Different Tendencies = 223
• 1.3.1.1. Apologetic literature = 223
• 1.3.1.2. Feminists Appeals for Interpretation = 225
• 1.3.1.3. Secularism = 228
• 1.3.2. Recurring Themes = 228
• 1.3.2.1. The Principle of Equality = 229
• 1.3.2.2. Marriage = 230
• a) Choice of a Husband = 231
• b) Polygamy = 231
• c) Authority of the Husband = 232
• 1.3.2.3. Divorce = 233
• a) Obtaining a Divorce = 233
• b) Custody = 234
• c) Maintenance = 235
• 1.3.2.4. Inheritance = 236
• 1.3.2.5. Testimony = 237
• 1.3.2.6. Blood Money = 238
• 1.3.2.7. Freedom of Movement ／ Hijab = 238
• 1.3.2.8. Right to Work = 239
• 1.3.2.9. Political Rights ／ Access to Public Functions = 240
• 2. Islamic Declarations of Human Rights = 241
• 2.1. Universal Islamic Declaration of Human Rights = 242
• 2.1.1. Situation = 242
• 2.1.2. Universality versus Particularity = 243
• 2.1.2.1. Elements of Universality = 243
• 2.1.2.2. Elements of Islamic Particularity = 243
• 2.1.3. Individualism versus Communalism = 249
• 2.1.4. Rights versus Duties = 251
• 2.1.5. Restriction of Rights = 253
• 2.1.6. Thorny Issues = 254
• 2.1.6.1. Women = 254
• 2.1.6.2 Religion = 256
• 2.1.6.3. Other = 256
• 2.1.7. General Appreciation = 258
• 2.2. Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam = 259
• 2.2.1. Situation = 259
• 2.2.2. Universality versus Particularity = 259
• 2.2.3. Individualism versus Communalism = 261
• 2.2.4. Rights versus Duties = 262
• 2.2.5. Restriction of Rights = 262
• 2.2.6. Thorny Issues = 263
• 2.2.6.1. Women = 263
• 2.2.6.2. Religion = 264
• 2.2.6.3. Other = 265
• 2.2.7. General Appreciation = 266
• 3. Islamic Reservations to Human Rights Conventions = 267
• 3.1. General Remarks = 267
• 3.2. Reservations of a General Nature = 271
• 3.3. Specific Reservations = 274
• 3.3.1. In the ICCPR and the ICESCR = 274
• 3.3.2. In CEDAW = 275
• 3.3.3. In the CRC = 278
• 3.4. Evolution Over Time : Reservations as Statements in a Debate = 280
• C. Interpretation = 285
• 1. Framework = 285
• 2. Main Claims = 286
• 3. Attitude Towards the Universality of Human Rights = 288
• 3.1. Universality and Respect for Diversity = 288
• 3.2. The Role of Culture = 290
• Ⅴ. Some Common Conclusions = 291
• A. Main Claims = 291
• B. Attitude Towards the Universality of Human Rights = 292
• C. Flexibility and Transformation = 292
• PART THREE : Inclusive universality = 295
• Ⅰ. Introduction = 295
• Ⅱ. Upholding the Ideal of the Universality of Human Rights = 296
• A. Unconditional Universality = 296
• 1.The Condition of General Formal Acceptance = 296
• 2. The Condition of Mixed Cultural Origin or Composition = 297
• 3. The Condition of Cross-Cultural Anthropological or Philosophical Foundations : of Mothers and Sisters = 300
• 3.1. Mother-notions = 300
• 3.2. Sister-notions = 302
• 3.3. Evaluation = 304
• B. A Functional and Pragmatic Basis for Affirming Universality = 304
• 1. A Functional Basis = 305
• 1.1. The Universality of the Modern State = 305
• 1.2. Human Suffering = 306
• 2. A Pragmatic Basis = 307
• Ⅲ. Necessary Consequences of the Universality of Human Rights : Toward Inclusive Universality = 308
• A. General Formal Acceptance = 309
• B. Participation in Norm Creation = 309
• C. Absence of Double Standards = 310
• D. General Opposability = 310
• E. Indivisibility = 311
• F. Cross-Cultural Acceptance in Anthropological and Philosophical Terms = 311
• G. Accommodating Particularities = 314
• 1. Transformation of Human Rights Standards = 315
• 2. Flexibility of Human Rights Standards = 316
• 3. Limits to the Accommodation of Particularities = 318
• 3.1. Who Makes the Claim? = 318
• 3.2. Thick and Thin Accounts of Human Rights : Gross Violations = 320
• 3.3. Limits Inherent in the Concept of Inclusive Universality = 322
• Ⅳ. Further Marking Out Inclusive Universality = 323
• A. Methodological Implications = 323
• B. Comparison With Other Concepts = 324
• 1. Minow's Relational and Contextual Approach = 324
• 2. Taylor and Habermas : Recognising Cultural Identities = 328
• 3 Kymlicka's Multiculturalism = 332
• 4. Donnelly's Weak Cultural Relativism = 335
• Ⅴ. Summing Up = 338
• PART FOUR : Legal Techniques for the Accommodation of Diversity = 341
• Ⅰ. Introduction = 341
• Ⅱ. Flexibility = 343
• A. Forum and Focus = 343
• B. Contextual Diversity in the Consideration of Human Rights Reports = 345
• 1. "Factors and "Difficulties" = 346
• 1.1. Types of Factors and Difficulties = 346
• 1.2. Impact on the Committee's Evaluation = 349
• 2. Progressive Realisation = 352
• 2.1. In the ICESCR = 352
• 2.2. In the CRC = 354
• 3. Conclusion = 355
• C. Margin of Appreciation = 357
• 1. Focus on Europe = 357
• 2. The Margin of Appreciation Doctrine = 360
• 3. One Doctrine, Several Techniques = 364
• 3.1. Contextual Variations in the Balancing between Rights and Restriction Grounds = 365
• 3.1.1. The Principle of Balancing : Individual versus Community = 365
• 3.1.2. Balancing in Practice = 366
• 3.1.2.1. The Weight of the Individual Right = 366
• a) The Importance of the Interest : Core Activities = 367
• b) The Seriousness of the Interference : "Substance" or "Essence" Criteria = 368
• 3.1.2.2. The Weight of the Community Interest = 371
• a) Choice from Among the Enumerated Interests in a Limitation Clause = 371
• b) Policy Field = 373
• Ⅰ. Better Position of the National Authorities = 374
• Ⅱ. Economic and Social Policy = 376
• Ⅲ. Sovereignty-related Policy Fields = 377
• Ⅳ. Special Regimes = 378
• 3.1.3. Balancing on the World Level = 380
• 3.2. Contextual Variations in Solving Conflicts of Rights = 384
• 3.3. Contextual Factors as Mitigating Circumstances for Interferences = 387
• 3.3.1. Local Situations = 388
• 3.3.2. Exceptional Situations = 389
• 3.4. Organisational Latitude for the Concretisation of Rights in Different Contexts = 390
• 3.5. Contextual Variability in the Interpretation of Vague or General Notions = 393
• 3.5.1. Autonomous Interpretation = 394
• 3.5.2. Evolutive Interpretation = 396
• 3.5.3. Margin of Appreciation in the Interpretation of Vague or General Notions = 397
• 4. Margin of Appreciation Criteria and Inclusive Universality = 400
• 4.1. Democracy = 400
• 4.2. Effectiveness = 405
• 4.3. No "Gross Violations" = 407
• 4.3.1. Core Rights? = 408
• 4.3.2. The Core of a Right = 410
• 4.4. The Consensus Criterion = 411
• 4.4.1. The Consensus Criterion in the Case-law of the European Court of Human Rights = 412
• 4.4.1.1. Comparison in Balancing = 412
• 4.4.1.2. Comparison in Other Legal Techniques = 413
• 4.4.1.3. Reference to Other Conventions = 414
• 4.4.1.4. Internal Uncertainty or Dispute = 415
• 4.4.1.5. Consensus and Evolution = 416
• 4.4.2. The Consensus Criterion on the World Level = 418
• 4.4.2.1. Problematic Aspects of the Consensus Criterion in General = 419
• 4.4.2.2. Additional Problems on the World Level = 420
• 5. Conclusion = 421
• Ⅲ. Transformation = 423
• A. Introduction = 423
• B. Duties = 424
• 1. Types of Duties = 424
• 2. Duties in International Human Rights Law = 425
• 2.1. Human Rights Texts on the Universal Level = 425
• 2.1.1. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights = 426
• 2.1.2. Other Texts = 427
• 2.2. Regional Human Rights Texts = 429
• 2.2.1. The European Convention on Human Rights = 429
• 2.2.2. The Americas = 430
• 2.2.3. The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights = 431
• 2.2.4. Asia = 431
• 3. More Duties? = 432
• 3.1. General Approach = 432
• 3.1.1. Potential Benefits of More Duties = 432
• 3.1.2. Avoiding Negative Effects of More Duties = 433
• 3.2. Concrete Proposals = 434
• 3.2.1. The Proposal of the InterAction Council = 434
• 3.2.1.1. The Text = 435
• 3.2.1.2. Evaluation = 438
• 3.2.2. The Proposal of Karel Vasak = 439
• 3.2.2.1. The Text = 439
• 3.2.2.2. Evaluation = 440
• C. Economic and Social Rights and the Right to Development = 442
• 1. Present International Law = 442
• 1.1. Economic and Social Rights = 442
• 1.1.1. A Distinct Category of Rights = 442
• 1.1.2. Challenging the Categorization = 446
• 1.1.2.1. Positive and Negative Obligations = 446
• 1.1.2.2. Progressive or Immediate Realization = 447
• 1.1.2.3. Justiciability = 447
• 1.1.2.4. Recent Developments = 449
• 1.2. The Right to Development = 450
• 1.2.1. History and Legal Status = 450
• 1.2.2. Specifics of the Right to Development = 453
• 1.2.2.1. Subjects and Duty-Holders = 453
• 1.2.2.2. Substance = 454
• 2. Possible Changes = 457
• 2.1.Trade-offs = 457
• 2.2. Upgrading Economic and Social rights = 459
• 2.2.1. Balancing Human Rights Evaluations = 460
• 2.2.2. Strengthening Economic and Social Rights = 460
• 2.2.2.1. Developing the Normative Content of Economic and Social Rights = 462
• a) Types of Obligations = 463
• b) Core and Margin = 464
• c) Types of Violations = 466
• d) Responsibility, Victims, Response = 468
• e) Reformulation = 468
• 2.2.2.2. Improving Control over the Implementation of Economic and Social Rights = 469
• a) Indicators = 469
• b) Violations = 470
• 2.3. Upgrading the Right to Development = 472
• 2.3.1. Balancing Human Rights Evaluations = 472
• 2.3.2. Strengthening the Right to Development = 473
• 2.3.2.1. Developing the Normative Content of the Right to Development = 473
• 2.3.2.2. Improving Control over the Implementation of the Right to Development = 474
• D. Collective Human Rights = 476
• 1. Collective Rights in Present International Law = 476
• 1.1. "Nationalist" Collective Human Rights = 477
• 1.2. Other Collective Human Rights = 482
• 2. Perspectives from Inclusive Universality = 485
• 2.1. Basic Attitude = 485
• 2.1.1. Collective Rights as Human Rights = 485
• 2.1.2. Precautions = 488
• 2.2. Increasing Attention for Collective Human Rights = 491
• 2.2.1. More Collective Human Rights? = 491
• 2.2.2. Normative Development and Implementation Mechanism = 492
• Ⅳ. Conclusion on Legal Techniques for the Accommodation of Diversity = 495
• A. General Remarks = 495
• B. Flexibility = 495
• C. Transformation = 501
• D. Toward Operationalisation = 506
• GENERAL CONCLUSION = 509
• Ⅰ. Two Central Problems = 509
• Ⅱ. Deflating a Blown Up Debate = 509
• Ⅲ. Promoting Inclusive Universality of Human Rights = 511
• Ⅳ. Disarming Mala Fide Critics = 513
• Ⅴ. Suggestions for Further Research = 514
• BIBLIOGRAPHY = 517
• INDEX = 561