Ergonomics : how to design for ease and efficiency

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• Preface = xvii
• INTRODUCTION - GOAL OF ERGONOMICS = 1
• Goals of this Book = 2
• How this Book is Organized = 3
• How To Use the Book = 3
• The Development of Ergonomics = 4
• Evolution of Disciplines = 4
• Directions in Europe = 5
• Directions in North America = 5
• Names for the Discipline : "Ergonomics" and "Human Factors" = 6
• The Ergonomic, Knowledge Base = 7
• Professional Organizations = 9
• Sources of Ergonomic Information = 9
• Addresses = 11
• Part One The Ergonomic Knowledge Base = 13
• 1 THE ANATOMICAL AND MECHANICAL STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN BODY = 13
• Overview = 13
• Development = 13
• Anthropology and Anthropometry = 15
• Measurement Techniques = 16
• Available Anthropometric Information = 22
• U.S. Civilians' Body Sizes = 28
• Anthropometric Statistics = 29
• How to Get Missing Data = 41
• "Fitting" Design Procedures = 43
• Human Biomechanics = 51
• The Skeletal System = 52
• Muscle = 67
• Biomechanical Description of the Body = 75
• Human Strength = 81
• Assessment of Human Muscle Strength = 89
• Summary = 91
• Challenges = 93
• 2 HOW THE BODY DOES ITS WORD = 94
• Overview = 94
• The Respiratory System = 94
• Respiratory Volumes = 96
• The Circulatory system = 97
• Blood = 98
• Architecture of the Circulatory System = 99
• The Heart as Pump = 100
• The Pathways of Blood = 100
• Regulation of Circulation = 103
• The Metabolic System = 103
• Human Metabolism and Work = 105
• Energy Liberation in the Human Body = 106
• The Energy Pathways = 106
• Foodstuffs = 107
• Energy Storage = 109
• Energy Use = 109
• Energy Release = 110
• Aerobic and Anaerobic Metabolism = 111
• Energy Use and Body Weight = 112
• Assessment of Energy Expenditures = 112
• Energy Requirements at Work = 118
• Basal Metabolism = 118
• Resting Metabolism = 119
• Work Metabolism = 119
• Fatigue = 120
• Techniques to Estimate Energy Requirements = 121
• What Your Body Does-How and Why? = 129
• Summary = 130
• Challenges = 131
• 3 HOW THE MIND WORKS = 132
• Overview = 132
• Introduction = 132
• The "Traditional" and the "Ecological" Concepts = 133
• Organization of the Nervous System = 134
• Sensors = 137
• The "Signal Loop" = 140
• Artificial Neural Networks = 142
• Ergonomic Uses of Nervous Signals = 144
• Responding to Stimuli = 144
• Reaction Time = 145
• Response Time = 148
• Mental Workload = 149
• "Stress" on Individuals and Crews = 152
• Strain Experienced by an Individual = 155
• Strain Experienced by Confined Groups = 157
• Enhancing Performance = 159
• General Findings = 161
• Specific Findings = l62
• Enhancing Teamwork = 164
• Detecting Deception = 164
• Summary = 167
• Challenges = 168
• 4 HUMAN SENSES = 170
• Overview = 170
• Introduction = 170
• Body Sensors = 170
• Stimuli = 172
• Adaptation and Inhibition = 172
• Sensory Thresholds = 173
• The Vision Sense = 175
• Architecture of the Eye = 175
• Mobility of the Eyes = 177
• Line of Sight = 179
• The Visual Field = 182
• Accommodation = 182
• Convergence = 183
• Visual Fatigue = 183
• Visual Problems = 184
• Vision Stimuli = 186
• Viewing Conditions = 187
• Ocular Adaptation = 188
• Virtual Acuity = 190
• Measurement of Light(Photometry) = 192
• Color Perception = 195
• Theories of Color Vision = 198
• Color Ordering Systems = 199
• Terminology = 199
• Esthetics asnd Psychology of Color = 200
• Illumination Concepts in Engineering and Design = 200
• The Hearing Sense = 203
• Ear Anatomy and Hearing = 205
• The Human Hearing Range = 207
• Human Responses to Sound = 209
• Noise = 209
• Physiological Effects of Sound = 210
• Effects of Noise on Human Performance = 212
• Avoiding Noise-Induced Hearing Loss = 213
• Sounds That Can Damage Hearing = 214
• Individual Susceptibility to NIHL = 214
• Means to Prevent NIHL = 215
• Psychophysics of Hearing = 216
• Voice Communications = 219
• The Olfactory Sense = 225
• The Gustation Sense = 229
• Cutaneous Senses = 230
• Sensing Taction = 231
• Sensing Temperature = 233
• Sensing Cutaneous Pain = 234
• Sensing Electrical Stimulation = 234
• The Vestibular Sense = 235
• Engineering Use of Sensory Capabilities = 237
• Enhancing Human Perception = 238
• Using the Taction Sense = 239
• Using the Temperature Sense = 240
• Using the Smell Sense = 241
• Using the Taste Sense = 241
• Using the Electrical Sense = 241
• Using the Pain Sense = 242
• Summary 2= 112
• Challenges = 243
• 5 HOW THE BODY INTERACTS WITH THE ENVIRONMENT = 244
• Overview = 244
• Thermo-Regulation of the Human Body = 244
• The Energy Balance = 245
• Energy Exchanges with the Environment = 245
• Temperature Regulation and Sensation = 248
• Achieving Thermal Homeostasis = 249
• Assessing the Thermal Environment = 249
• Reactions of the Body to Hot Environments = 253
• Reactions of the Body to Cold Environments = 255
• Acclimatization = 258
• Working Strenuously in Heat and Cold = 259
• Designing the Thermal Environment = 263
• Working in Polluted Air = 265
• Working Strenuously at High Altitude = 268
• The Effects of vibration on the Human Body = 270
• Measurements of Vibration = 271
• Effects of Vibration = 274
• Subjective Assessment of Vibration Effects = 277
• Effects of Vibration on Performance = 278
• Vibrations Causing Injuries and Disorders = 279
• The Effects of Impacts = 282
• Models of the Dynamic Response of the Human Body = 284
• Astronauts in "Weightlessness" = 289
• Microgravity = 291
• Radiation = 291
• Musculo-skeletal System = 292
• Blood and Fluid Distribution = 293
• Nervous Control = 294
• Effects on Performance = 296
• Artificial Gravity = 298
• Accelerations in Aerospace = 299
• Summary = 302
• Challenges = 302
• 6 BODY RHYTHMS, WORK SCHEDULES, AND ALCOHOL EFFECTS = 304
• Overview = 304
• Introduction = 304
• Female Menstrual Cycle = 305
• Circadian Rhythms = 306
• Sleep = 310
• Prolonged Hours of Work and Sleep Deprivation = 314
• Shift Work = 317
• Body Rhythms and Shift Work : Summary = 328
• Effects of Alcohol on Performance = 329
• Blood Alcohol Content = 330
• Absorption = 330
• Elimination of Alcohol = 330
• Specific effects of Alcohol = 33l
• Effects of Alcohol : Summary = 334
• Summary = 334
• Challenges = 334
• Part Two Design Applications = 336
• 7 MODELS OF THE HUMAN OPERATING EQUIPMENT = 336
• Overview = 336
• Introduction = 336
• Model Definition = 338
• Types of Models = 339
• Inadequate Models = 340
• Misuse of Models = 341
• Reviewing the Past and Guiding the Future of Modelling the "Human at Work" = 342
• Anthropometric Models = 343
• Biomechanical Models = 344
• Human-Machine Interface Models = 345
• Future Model Developments = 345
• Summary = 348
• Challenges = 349
• 8 DESIGNING TO FIT BODY POSTURE = 350
• Overview = 350
• Introduction = 351
• Evaluation of "Suitable" Positions at work = 352
• Body Postures at Work = 355
• Recording and Evaluating Pastures at Work = 359
• Designing for the Standing Operator = 362
• Designing for the Sitting Operator = 365
• Designing for Working Positions Other Than Sitting or Standing = 369
• Work in Restricted Spaces = 370
• Designing for Foot Operation = 377
• Designing for Hand Use = 383
• Designing Hand Tools = 385
• The Use of Tables of Exerted Torques and Forces = 397
• Designing for Vision = 401
• Avoiding Posture Overuse Disorders in Shop and Office = 401
• "Mountain Peaking Through Fog" = 405
• Biomechanical Strains of the Body = 406
• Body Components at Risk from ODs = 407
• Carpal Tunnel Syndrome = 409
• Occupational Activities and Related Disorders = 411
• OD-Prone Activities and Postures = 411
• Stages of Disorders and Their Treatments = 419
• Ergonomic Means to Counter ODs = 420
• Research Needs = 425
• Summary = 426
• Challenges = 427
• 9 THE OFFICE(COMPUTER) WORKSTATION = 429
• Overview = 429
• Introduction = 429
• Theories of "Healthy" Sitting = 430
• Sitting "Upright" = 430
• Experimental Studies = 433
• "Free Posturing" = 439
• Ergonomic Design of the Office Workstation = 441
• Designing the Visual Interface = 442
• Designing the Motoric Interface = 452
• Designing the Sit-Down Workstation = 455
• Design Principles = 457
• Environment = 457
• Design for Change = 458
• Furniture = 459
• Designing the Stand-Up Workstation = 462
• Data Entry Devices = 462
• Display Screen = 463
• Job Content and Work Organization = 463
• Changes Through Technological Developments = 464
• Summary = 464
• Challenges = 466
• 10 "HANDLING" LOADS = 467
• Overview = 467
• Introduction : Strains Associated with Load Handling = 467
• Assessing Body Capabilities Related to Material Handling = 469
• Back Injury and Pain = 473
• Personnel Training = 476
• What Are Proper Lifting Techniques? = 476
• Training : What and How = 482
• Summary Conclusions of the Review of Training = 486
• Personnel Selection by Physical Testing = 490
• Capability Limitations = 490
• Assessment Methods = 490
• Screening Techniques = 492
• Ethical and Legal Considerations = 496
• Ergonomic Design = 496
• Facility Layout = 496
• The Work Environment = 503
• Equipment = 503
• Ergonomic Design of Workstation and Work Task = 511
• Permissible Loads for Manual Material Handling = 512
• Limits for Lifting and Lowering = 514
• Comparing Recommendations = 523
• The Effects of Posture = 524
• Helping Each Other = 524
• Use of "Pressure Belts" = 525
• Activities Other Than Industrial Lifting and Carrying = 529
• Ergonomic Rules for Industrial Manual Handling Tasks, Particularly Lifting of Loads = 531
• Summary = 535
• Challenges = 536
• 11 SELECTION DESIGN, AND ARRANGEMENT OF CONTROLS AND DISPLAYS = 538
• Overview = 538
• Introduction = 538
• Controls = 539
• Control Selection = 539
• Arrangement and Grouping of Controls = 543
• Control Design = 545
• Sets of Numerical Keys = 557
• Alphanumeric Keyboards = 557
• Computer Input Devices = 568
• Foot-Operated Controls = 568
• Remote Control Units = 571
• Displays = 580
• Labels and Warnings = 595
• Summary = 599
• Challenges = 600
• 12 DESIGN FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS = 601
• Overview = 601
• Background = 601
• Special Designs for Women and Men? = 602
• Size and Strength = 602
• Sensory Abilities = 603
• Cognition and Intellectual Skills = 603
• Motor Skills = 603
• Coping with Environmental Stress = 604
• Cyclical Variations = 604
• Task Performance in General = 604
• No Special Designs for Women and Men = 606
• Designing for Pregnant Women = 606
• Designing for Children = 610
• Designing for the Aging = 616
• Anthropometry = 617
• Changes in Biomecitanics = 620
• Changes in Respiration and Circulation = 621
• Changes in Nervous Functions = 621
• Changes in Taste and Smell = 622
• Changes in Visual Functions = 622
• Designing for the Aging Vision = 623
• Changes in Hearing = 625
• Changes in Semesthetic Sensitivity = 626
• Changes in Psychometric Performance = 626
• Designing for the Older Worker = 628
• Designing for the Aging Driver and Passenger = 629
• Designing the Home for the Aging = 630
• The Design of Nursing Homes = 633
• Ergonomic Design for Disabled Persons = 635
• Description of "Disability" or "Handicap" = 636
• Ergonomic Means to Enable the Disabled = 636
• Summary = 643
• Challenges = 644
• POSTSCRIPT = 646
• How to do Ergonomic Interventions and to Measure Their Success = 646
• Optimization = 648
• Measuring Cost and Success = 649
• Research and Practice = 650
• Use of New Information = 650
• Theory versus Practice? = 651
• The Bridge = 652
• Part Three Further Information = 653
• REFERENCES = 653
• GLOSSARY OF TERMS = 708
• INDEX = 747