1. Background and Objectives of the Study
Climate change is a critical environmental and social issue that directly affects the spatial structure and functions of national and urban territories. Therefore, a spatially based policy approach is essential for effective climate crisis response. However, in the current policy system, spatial planning and climate policy are often operated as separate policy domains, resulting in insufficient policy coordination and limited policy effectiveness. In particular, climate change adaptation and greenhouse gas mitigation policies are closely related to spatial planning elements such as land use, infrastructure management, water management, disaster risk management, transportation systems, and the siting of energy facilities. Therefore, an integrated approach to spatial planning and climate policy is necessary. The objective of this study is to develop effective strategies for integrating spatial planning and climate policy. To achieve this, the study analyzes institutional frameworks in the Republic of Korea and compares them with European cases, particularly those of the Netherlands, in order to propose integration strategies, including legal and institutional improvements, governance arrangements, policy instruments, and the use of spatial information. The research methodology includes policy document analysis, case studies, and expert interviews. The interview data were coded and analyzed using MAXQDA. In this study, spatial planning refers to spatially based planning that includes national land planning, urban planning, and environmental planning, while climate policy refers to climate change response policies, including greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation and climate change adaptation. The study examines policy systems at the national level in Korea and the Netherlands, and at the local level in the cities of Incheon and Amsterdam. The analysis focuses on sectors commonly addressed by both spatial planning and climate policy in order to examine the structure of policy linkages and integration between plans. In addition, based on the concepts of Environmental Policy Integration (EPI) and Climate Policy Integration (CPI), the study analyzes the level of integration as well as the driving and constraining factors of policy integration.
2. Analysis of Spatial Planning and Climate Policy Integration in the Republic of Korea
2.1 Results of the analysis of spatial planning and climate policy integration at the national level
The integration of spatial planning and climate policy at the national level in Korea was analyzed from four perspectives: substantive, procedural, instrumental, and institutional integration. The analysis shows that integration has progressed in planning and in the use of analytical tools, but remains limited at the organizational level. Climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies are increasingly being reflected in major spatial planning documents such as the National Comprehensive Territorial Plan, the National Environmental Plan, and Urban Master Plans. These plans include policy directions related to low-carbon spatial planning and development, climate-responsive land management, green infrastructure, disaster prevention–oriented land use, and renewable energy development. This indicates that climate policy goals are being incorporated into spatial planning policy content. Climate considerations are also incorporated into planning procedures through institutionalized evaluation and review processes. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), environmental reviews, and disaster vulnerability assessments are used during the planning process, which allows climate-related risks and environmental conditions to be considered when plans are prepared. In terms of policy instruments and technical tools, Korea actively uses spatial data and analytical tools such as disaster vulnerability assessments, Environmental Conservation Value Assessment Maps (ECVAM), greenhouse gas emission (GHG) analysis, and urban climate maps. Among the four dimensions of integration, the use of spatial data and analytical tools represents one of the most developed areas of integration in Korea. At the organizational level, policy coordination is carried out through inter-ministerial consultation between the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MOLIT) and the Ministry of Climate, Energy, and Environment (MCEE), as well as through cross-government coordination bodies such as the Presidential Committee on Carbon Neutrality and Green Growth. However, there is no integrated legal framework or dedicated organization responsible for jointly planning and implementing spatial planning and climate policy. As a result, integration is mainly achieved through inter-agency coordination rather than through an integrated institutional system.
2.2 Results of the analysis of spatial planning and climate policy integration in Incheon
The integration of spatial planning and climate policy in the Korean city of Incheon was examined from the perspectives of substantive, procedural, instrumental, and institutional integration. The analysis shows that integration has been achieved to some extent in planning content and the use of spatial information, but integration within the planning system and decision-making structure remains limited. Climate adaptation measures are reflected in the Incheon Urban Master Plan, including wind corridor planning, the management of disaster-prone areas, green space planning, and water circulation planning, which are incorporated into the urban spatial structure and land-use plan. In addition, the Carbon Neutrality and Green Growth Plan and the Climate Change Adaptation Plan include policies on GHG reduction, energy transition, and climate risk management that are related to spatial and urban policy. This indicates that spatial planning and climate policy are linked in planning content. In terms of planning procedures, disaster vulnerability assessments and environmental reviews are conducted during the preparation of the Urban Master Plan. Public participation, expert consultation, and public hearings are also included in the preparation of carbon neutrality and environmental plans, which shows that procedural linkages exist in the planning process. Various spatial datasets are used, including climate risk maps, vulnerability assessment results, and environmental spatial information. The environmental plan in particular provides quantitative criteria for environmental conservation and development suitability using spatial environmental data, and these criteria are used to inform spatial planning directions. However, the institutional mechanisms that directly apply these criteria to land-use planning and spatial structure decisions remain insufficient. At the organizational level, policies are implemented through cooperation among departments responsible for urban planning, environment, disaster management, and energy, supported by committee-based coordination mechanisms. However, there is no dedicated organization responsible for the integrated management of spatial planning and climate policy, and governance relies mainly on interdepartmental cooperation.
2.3 Barriers to and enablers of climate integration in spatial planning
The interview analysis shows that climate crisis response and carbon neutrality have risen to the top of the national policy agenda in Korea. As a result, integration has gradually improved in planning content. However, the actual planning and implementation processes often fail to reflect this, due to various institutional and administrative constraints. From a substantive perspective, a key driving factor is that climate response and carbon neutrality have been elevated to central national policy agendas. Climate-related strategies such as low-carbon spatial planning and development, climate resilience, disaster prevention, renewable energy expansion, and eco-friendly transportation have been incorporated into major spatial plans, including the National Comprehensive Territorial Plan, the National Environmental Plan, and Urban Master Plans. However, several constraints remain. Short-term policy priorities such as development projects, the housing supply, and the resolution of civil petitions are often given higher priority than climate policy, which leads to conflicts among policy priorities. In addition, climate policy focuses on GHG reduction and carbon neutrality, while urban planning focuses on accessibility, development, and urban spatial structure. These differences in policy objectives make integration difficult. Another limitation is that climate adaptation plans are largely composed of projects and programs, which are not easily incorporated into land-use or spatial planning initiatives. At the procedural level, Korea has institutional mechanisms such as legal frameworks, planning guidelines, consultation procedures, and evaluation systems that allow climate considerations to be reviewed and reflected in planning processes. For example, planning guidelines for Urban Master Plans, disaster vulnerability assessments, environmental impact assessments, and inter-ministerial consultation procedures function as formal mechanisms for incorporating climate-related considerations into spatial planning. However, consultation and stakeholder input processes are treated as mere formalities, and do not often lead to substantive revisions of planning content. In addition, differences in planning timelines and planning periods between spatial planning and climate plans make coordination difficult. Climate policy is typically designed from a long-term perspective, whereas urban planning usually has short-term objectives. This temporal mismatch between plans is a major barrier to integration. With regard to policy instruments and technical capacity, research institutes and specialized organizations such as carbon neutrality support centers play an important role by providing analytical and technical support that links spatial planning and climate policy. However, climate data and spatial data are fragmented across multiple institutions, and there are insufficient standards and guidelines on how such information should be used in spatial planning. Budget and staffing limitations also constrain the production and use of climate data. Furthermore, limitations in data resolution, standardization, and usability make it difficult to apply climate data directly to land-use and development decision-making. From an organizational perspective, strong leadership and policy commitment from key decision-makers such as mayors, vice mayors, and ministers serve as important driving forces for integration, along with interdepartmental cooperation mechanisms. In particular, when high-level decision makers are participating members of coordination bodies, interdepartmental cooperation becomes more active and the level of integration between plans increases. However, spatial planning and climate policy are managed by different departments, which often limits effective coordination. In addition, the constant rotation of personnel in the public sector makes it difficult to accumulate expertise, and there is a shortage of professionals who understand both climate policy and spatial planning. These factors act as major organizational barriers to integration.
3. Analysis of Spatial Planning and Climate Policy Integration in the Netherlands
3.1 Integration analysis: Spatial planning and climate policy integration at the national level
The analysis of the Netherlands shows that spatial planning and climate policy are integrated at the level of the legal and planning system rather than through coordination between separate plans. Under the Environment and Planning Act (Omgevingswet), spatial planning, environment, water management, nature, and construction are integrated into a single legal framework. The National Strategy on Spatial Planning and the Environment (NOVI) integrates climate adaptation, energy transition, economic development, and spatial development within a single national strategy, while programs such as the Delta Programme and the Regional Energy Strategy link climate adaptation, water management, and renewable energy planning with spatial planning. In terms of planning and implementation procedures, the Netherlands operates an integrated planning system consisting of the Omgevingsvisie, Omgevingsplan, and Programma, which connects spatial planning, implementation programs, and permitting procedures within a single framework. Climate adaptation policy is implemented through a stepwise process consisting of climate stress tests, risk dialogue, strategy development, and implementation agendas, which link climate analysis with spatial planning and development projects. The Netherlands also operates integrated information and monitoring systems, including climate risk maps, digital planning systems, monitoring dashboards, and financial mechanisms, which support data-based decision-making in spatial planning. In addition, a multi-level governance structure involving the national government, local governments, water boards, and other institutions enables coordinated planning and implementation. Overall, the Dutch case represents a form of structural integration, in which spatial planning and climate policy are integrated through a unified legal framework, planning system, implementation programs, and information and monitoring systems, rather than through coordination between separate sectoral plans.
3.2 Integration analysis: Spatial planning and climate policy integration in Amsterdam
The Amsterdam case shows that spatial planning and climate policy are integrated across planning content, procedures, policy instruments, and governance arrangements. Through the Omgevingsvisie Amsterdam 2050, the city integrates urban development, housing, transport, energy transition, climate adaptation, green space, water management, health, and the circular economy into a single spatial framework. Climate policy is therefore not treated as a separate sectoral policy; rather, it is incorporated into land-use planning, urban development, and spatial strategies.
In terms of planning procedures, environmental and climate assessments are conducted before spatial plans are finalized, and the results are reflected in planning decisions. The Omgevingsplan links land-use planning with development projects and permitting procedures, creating a system in which planning and implementation are connected. Climate adaptation considerations are also reviewed during urban development and redevelopment projects. Amsterdam also uses various spatial and climate data, including climate risk maps, vulnerability maps, environmental indicators, and energy spatial maps, as well as monitoring systems such as climate budgets and indicators. These tools support data-based decision-making in spatial planning and urban development. In terms of governance, spatial planning and climate policy are implemented through collaborative governance involving the municipal government, water boards, national and provincial governments, regional cooperation bodies, and private stakeholders. Overall, the Amsterdam case demonstrates that climate policy is integrated into spatial planning not only at the policy level, but also in planning implementation, development control, and permitting processes.
3.3 Barriers to and enablers of climate integration in spatial planning in the Netherlands
The analysis of the Dutch case and expert interviews shows that the Netherlands has established an integrated structure for spatial planning and climate policy at the level of legal and planning systems. However, in the actual policy formulation and implementation process, both enabling factors and constraining factors exist simultaneously. One of the key enabling factors is that climate change response has been established as a major policy priority at both national and local government levels. Issues such as climate adaptation, energy transition, water management, and soil management have become core priorities in spatial planning, and climate-related considerations are directly incorporated into spatial strategies and planning documents. The analysis also shows that the level of integration tends to increase when political leadership places a high priority on climate policy. Institutional and procedural arrangements also play an important role in promoting integration. The integrated legal framework centered on the Omgevingswet, together with environmental impact assessment systems, spatial development guidelines, and rainwater management standards, ensures that climate considerations are incorporated into spatial planning processes. These institutional arrangements make climate change response a mandatory planning condition rather than a separate policy issue, thereby enabling procedural integration. Technical and analytical tools are another important enabling factor. The Netherlands has developed various climate information and analytical tools, including climate risk maps, climate scenarios, vulnerability maps, and climate stress tests, and these tools are actively used in spatial planning decision-making. In particular, due to physical environmental constraints such as flood risk and sea-level rise, it is necessary to distinguish between areas suitable for development and areas where development should be avoided. This has led to a planning system in which climate information is directly used as a basis for spatial planning decisions. Collaborative governance is also a key factor supporting integration. A cooperative governance structure has been established involving the national government, local governments, water boards, public agencies, private sector actors, and citizens. Social awareness of climate risks and strong political leadership were identified as important factors that support and legitimize policy integration. At the same time, several factors constrain integration. In terms of policy content, conflicts between climate policy and other policy priorities such as the housing supply, economic growth, agriculture, and development projects were identified as major barriers. From a procedural perspective, coordination among stakeholders and policy coordination between the national and local governments were identified as ongoing challenges. In terms of implementation capacity, budget and staffing limitations were identified as constraints, while in terms of governance, cost-sharing issues and conflicts of interest with the private sector were identified as barriers to integration. Overall, the Netherlands has established an integrated legal and institutional framework, a climate information–based decision-making system, and a collaborative governance structure that supports the integration of spatial planning and climate policy. However, in the implementation stage, conflicts with other policy priorities such as the housing supply, as well as budget constraints, staffing limitations, and coordination challenges with the private sector, continue to act as barriers to effective integration.
4. Comparison of Spatial Planning and Climate Policy Integration between Korea and the Netherlands
The comparison between Korea and the Netherlands shows that the two countries differ not only in the level of integration but also in the way their planning systems are structured and operated. In Korea, national territorial planning and environmental and climate plans are prepared and implemented as separate planning systems, and integration is pursued mainly through coordination and linkages between plans. Major national plans such as the National Comprehensive Territorial Plan, the National Environmental Plan, the Carbon Neutrality and Green Growth Basic Plan, and the National Climate Change Adaptation Plan have been established independently. Climate considerations are incorporated into spatial planning through inter-ministerial consultations, environmental assessments, and disaster vulnerability analyses during the planning process. This hierarchical planning system has the advantage of strong policy implementation capacity, as national policy directions can be effectively transmitted to local planners for implementation. However, specific implementation standards, quantitative evaluation criteria, and development and permitting standards that would allow climate objectives to function as decision-making criteria in land-use planning and development projects are not sufficiently institutionalized. As a result, integration often amounts to little more than consistency among planning documents.
In contrast, the Netherlands has established an integrated legal and planning system that combines spatial planning, environmental management, water management, climate policy, and energy policy within a single framework. Through the Environmental and Planning Act (Omgevingswet), spatial and environmental legislation has been integrated, and a comprehensive planning–implementation system has been established, linking the National Strategy on Spatial Planning and the Environment (NOVI), municipal environmental visions (Omgevingsvisie), land-use plans (Omgevingsplan), implementation programs (Programma), and permitting procedures. In addition, implementation instruments such as integrated digital systems, climate maps, environmental impact assessments, and climate budgets ensure that climate considerations are reflected not only in planning but also in project implementation and permitting stages. Furthermore, collaborative governance involving the national government, local governments, and Water Boards plays a key role in both planning and implementation. Overall, Korea relies on a hierarchical planning system and inter-plan coordination, which provides strong policy implementation capacity but lacks concrete implementation tools, while the Netherlands integrates policies through a unified legal and planning framework that allows integration to function throughout the entire planning and implementation process.
At the local level, the comparison between Incheon and Amsterdam shows that the main difference lies in how climate considerations are incorporated into spatial planning. In Incheon, climate-related policies are reflected in individual plans such as the Urban Master Plan, Environmental Plan, Carbon Neutrality Plan, and Climate Change Adaptation Plan, and integration is pursued through coordination between these plans. In Amsterdam, however, climate adaptation, energy transition, water management, and urban development are integrated within a single spatial planning framework centered on the Omgevingsvisie, and climate considerations function as decision-making criteria in spatial planning. Amsterdam goes beyond simply reflecting climate risk analysis results in plans, and instead uses them as criteria for spatial planning and development decisions. For example, areas prone to excessive heat stress are targeted for additional green space or shade, and water retention is prioritized in areas prone to flooding. These climate-sensitive areas are also exposed to different development risks, which planning efforts must reflect. In addition, the rainwater ordinance requires new buildings to install rainwater storage facilities, ensuring that climate adaptation measures are implemented in the permitting process. In contrast, although Incheon conducts disaster vulnerability analyses and environmental assessments, the results are not sufficiently institutionalized as decision-making criteria for land-use planning or development projects. As a result, while development planning acknowledges climate and environmental analyses, integration throughout the planning, project management, and permitting processes remains weak. Another major difference is the use of quantitative planning standards. Amsterdam applies quantitative standards such as rainwater storage capacity requirements, environmental assessment indicators, climate adaptation assessment criteria, and climate budgets to ensure that climate policies are implemented in spatial planning and development projects. In Korea, climate change is often addressed qualitatively in plans; quantitative land-use, planning, and development standards are few and far between. Therefore, rather than introducing new integrated plans, Korea should focus on strengthening the existing planning system so that climate adaptation and carbon neutrality considerations can function as decision-making criteria in urban master planning and land-use planning. This requires the development of quantitative planning standards and evaluation systems and their linkage to development projects and permitting procedures.
5. Strategies for Integrating Spatial Planning and Climate in Korea
First, in terms of substantive integration, this study proposes introducing a Climate and Spatial Strategy as a statutory component of Urban Master Plans. This strategy would incorporate carbon-neutral spatial structure, climate risk–responsive land use, water-green space-wind corridors, renewable energy siting, and strategies for protecting climate-vulnerable populations. All of these components would become mandatory planning considerations. In addition, quantitative planning standards such as flood risk development standards, green space ratio standards for heat mitigation, water circulation management standards, rainwater storage standards, and carbon emission management standards should be introduced so that national carbon neutrality and climate adaptation goals can function as concrete land-use and development criteria at the local planning level. Second, in terms of procedural integration, this study proposes introducing a climate compatibility assessment or climate impact assessment for Urban Master Plans and large-scale development projects, and requiring that disaster vulnerability analysis results be used as key input data in spatial structure and land-use alternative evaluations. In addition, the timing of Urban Master Plans, carbon neutrality plans, and climate adaptation plans should be aligned. A stepwise process similar to the Dutch approach, consisting of climate stress tests, risk dialogues, spatial strategies, and implementation programs, should be institutionalized to establish a system that links analysis, planning, projects, and budgeting. Third, in terms of instrumental integration, climate and spatial information directly related to spatial planning, such as flood risks, heat risks, wind corridors, emissions intensity, carbon sinks, the distribution of climate-vulnerable populations, and infrastructure risks, should be designated as mandatory national-level datasets. Urban planning, development project evaluation, and permitting processes should require analyses of these data. In addition, an integrated information system that manages land, environment, and climate data should be established so that analytical results can function as actual criteria for site selection and development approval throughout the planning, project, and permitting stages. In particular, it is important to link quantitative standards such as climate impact comparison by alternatives, rainwater storage standards, green space ratio standards, and water circulation standards to permitting criteria. Fourth, in terms of institutional integration, this study proposes establishing a permanent joint coordination body between MOLIT and MCEE. At the local government level, a dedicated climate–spatial integration unit should be established under the direct authority of the vice mayor or deputy governor. In addition, the institutional foundation for institutional integration should be strengthened by placing climate experts within urban planning and development departments, expanding professional position systems and long-term appointment systems, linking interdepartmental collaboration performance with evaluation and budgeting, and institutionalizing the participation of carbon neutrality support centers and research institutes in the planning process.