Solid-earth sciences and society : a critical assessment

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• EXECUTIVE SUMMARY = 1
• PRESENT STATE OF THE SOLID-EARTH SCIENCES = 2
• PRIORITIES = 3
• Priority Themes: Objectives and Research Areas = 3
• Selection of High-Priority Research Opportunities = 3
• PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE = 4
• Personnel Requirements = 4
• Education Requirements = 4
• Facilities and Equipment = 5
• Data Gathering and Handling = 5
• Funding for Priority Themes = 8
• Global Collaboration = 8
• RECOMMENDATIONS = 9
• Education Recommendations, 9; Research Recommendations, 9; General Recommendations = 11
• 1 GLOBAL OVERVIEW = 13
• ESSAY ON THE EARTH SCIENCES = 13
• Living on Earth = 13
• Understanding the Earth = 15
• Predicting the Earth's Future = 15
• THE EARTH AND ITS COMPONENTS = 16
• UNIFYING FORCES IN THE GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES = 18
• Plate Tectonics = 18
• Images of the Earth = 19
• Variations in the Earth's Orbit = 20
• Humankind as a Geological Agent = 20
• GOALS OF THE EARTH SCIENCES: RESEARCH FRAMEWORK = 20
• Goal, Objectives, and Research Themes = 21
• Research Framework = 22
• Priority Theme Selection = 23
• PRIORITY THEMES: RESEARCH AREAS = 26
• Priority Theme A-I: Global Paleoenvironments and Biological Evolution = 25
• Priority Theme A-II: Global Geochemical and Biogeochemical Cycles = 26
• Priority Theme A-III: Fluids in and on the Earth = 28
• Priority Theme A-IV: Crustal Dynamics: Ocean and Continents = 29
• Priority Theme A-V: Core and Mantle Dynamics = 32
• PRIORITY THEMES: OBJECTIVES = 34
• Priority Theme B: Sustaining Resource Supplies = 34
• Priority Theme C: Preventing Damage from Geological Hazards = 36
• Priority Theme D: Assessing, Mitigating, and Remediating Effects of Environmental and Global Change = 37
• RESEARCH SUPPORT = 39
• Federal Funding = 39
• Industry Support of University Research = 39
• INSTRUMENTATION, COMPUTATIONAL CAPABILITY, AND DATA MANAGEMENT = 41
• Facilities and Instruments = 41
• Data Handling = 42
• EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT = 43
• INTERNATIONAL SCOPE = 44
• ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT = 45
• 2 UNDERSTANDING OUR ACTIVE PLANET = 47
• ESSAY: THE DYNAMIC EARTH = 47
• ORIGIN OF THE EARTH = 50
• Comparative Planetology = 51
• Early Earth Evolution and Great Impacts = 52
• STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE SOLID EARTH = 53
• Seismic Determinations of Earth Structure = 53
• Mantle Convection = 56
• Core Dynamics and Geomagnetism = 57
• Core-Mantle Boundary = 58
• EARTHQUAKES: CONSEQUENCES OF A DYNAMIC MANTLE = 58
• Geographic Distribution = 58
• Understanding Earthquakes = 60
• Earth Deformation = 60
• VOLCANIC ACTIVITY: CONSEQUENCE OF CONVECTING MANTLE = 61
• Geographic Distribution, Style, and Scale of Eruptions = 62
• Flow and Storage of Magma = 62
• Volcanic Eruptions = 63
• OCEAN BASIN PROCESSES = 66
• Ocean Spreading Centers = 66
• Intraplate Volcanism: Hot Spots and Oceanic Plateaus = 67
• Plate Kinematics = 69
• Ocean Convergent Plate Boundaries: Island Arcs = 69
• CONTINENTAL STRUCTURE AND EVOLUTION = 71
• Seismic Imaging of the Crust = 71
• Mountain Building: Metamorphism and Deformation of Continents = 73
• Extensional Deformation of Continental Lithosphere = 74
• Evolution of the Continents = 75
• Sedimentary Basins = 78
• Continental Collision = 78
• Growth of the Continents Through Time = 80
• GEOCHEMICAL CYCLES = 81
• INTERACTION BETWEEN THE SOLID EARTH AND ITS FLUID ENVELOPES = 83
• RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES = 84
• Research Area II: Global Geochemical and Biogeochemical Cycles = 84
• Research Area III: Fluids in and on the Earth = 86
• Research Area IV: Dynamics of the Crust and Lithosphere = 86
• Research Area V: Dynamics of the Core and Mantle = 87
• FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, AND DATA BASES = 88
• BIBLIOGRAPHY = 89
• 3 THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT AND ITS EVOLUTION = 91
• ESSAY = 91
• THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT: A GEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE = 94
• The Changing Land Surface = 94
• Beneath the Sea = 100
• CHANGE IN THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT = 103
• Cyclical Change in the Global Environment = 103
• Secular Change in the Global System = 115
• History of Life = 120
• Catastrophes in Earth History = 127
• MODELING THE EARTH SYSTEM = 128
• An Incomplete Record = 128
• Intellectual Frontiers = 129
• RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES = 132
• Research Area I. Paleoenvironmcnt and Biological Evolution = 133
• Research Area II. Global Geochemical and Biogeochemical Cycles = 134
• Research Area III. Fluids in and on the Earth = 135
• Research Area IV. Crustal Dynamics: Ocean and Continent = 135
• Facilities, Equipment, and Data Bases = 135
• BIBLIOGRAPHY = 136
• 4 RESOURCES OF THE SOLID EARTH = 137
• ESSAY: NATURAL EXPLOITATION = 137
• ROCK-FLUID INTERACTIONS = 140
• WATER RESOURCES = 141
• Water Quality = 143
• Water Supply and Use = 145
• Influencing the Water Cycle = 148
• MINERAL RESOURCES = 149
• Understanding Mineral Deposits = 152
• Crustal Processes and Ore Deposits = 153
• Genetic Studies of Ore Deposits = 155
• Models in the Study of Mineral Deposits = 156
• Mineral Exploration and Exploitation = 158
• ENERGY RESOURCES = 162
• Petroleum Resources = 163
• Coal: An Abundant Fuel Resource = 172
• Sources of Energy from the Internal Engine = 175
• RESOURCE DEPENDENCY = 177
• RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES = 178
• Water Resources = 178
• Mineral Resources = 180
• Energy Resources = 181
• Facilities, Equipment, and Data Bases = 182
• BIBLIOGRAPHY = 183
• 5 HAZARDS, LAND USE, AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE = 185
• ESSAY: A FRACTION OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE = 185
• GEOMORPHIC HAZARDS = 189
• Landslides and Debris Flows = 191
• Land Subsidence = 195
• Floods = 196
• Coastal Fluctuation = 196
• TECTONIC HAZAJRDS = 197
• Earthquakes = 197
• Tsunami Hazards = 208
• Volcanic Hazards = 210
• HAZARDS OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL ORIGIN = 213
• PROBLEMS RELATED TO POPULATION CONCENTRATION = 214
• Engineered Structures = 215
• Use of Earth Materials = 216
• Tunnels and Underground Openings = 216
• Health Risks from Geological Material = 217
• Agriculture = 219
• Soil Development and Soil Degradation = 220
• Waste Management = 220
• Contaminated Water, Air Pollution, and Acid Rain = 222
• GLOBAL CHANGE = 223
• Understanding Global Change = 224
• Mitigation and Remediation = 224
• Three Roles for the Solid-Earth Scientist = 225
• RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES = 225
• Objective C: To Mitigate Geological Hazards = 226
• Objective D: To Minimize Perturbations from and Adjust to Global and Environmental Change = 230
• BIBLIOGRAPHY = 231
• 6 ENSURING EXCELLENCE AND THE NATIONAL WELL-BEING = 233
• ESSAY = 233
• ROLES, NUMBERS, AND BACKGROUNDS OF SOLID-EARTH SCIENTISTS = 237
• Solid-Earth Sciences and National Security = 237
• Demographic Characteristics of Solid-Earth Scientists = 238
• Future Demand for Solid-Earth Scientists = 240
• EDUCATION IN THE SOLID-EARTH SCIENCES = 242
• Formal Education in the Solid-Earth Sciences = 244
• Public Awareness of the Earth Sciences = 247
• Coping with the Supply of Solid-Earth Scientists = 247
• INSTRUMENTATION AND FACILITIES = 248
• Global Positioning System = 248
• Digital Seismology = 249
• Instrumentation in Earth Science Laboratories = 249
• DATA GATHERING AND HANDLING = 252
• The Digital Data Revolution = 253
• Improving Data Management = 254
• GLOBAL COLLABORATION = 255
• International Collaborative Activities = 255
• U.S. Collaborative Activities = 258
• Other Nations' Activities = 261
• Proposed Programs = 262
• RECOMMENDATIONS = 263
• Education in the Solid-Earth Sciences = 263
• Instrumentation and Facilities = 264
• Data Gathering and Handling = 264
• Global Collaboration = 266
• BIBLIOGRAPHY = 267
• 7 RESEARCH PRIORITIES AND RECOMMENDATIONS = 269
• INTRODUCTION = 269
• SETTING RESEARCH PRIORITIES = 270
• Planning and Decision Making = 270
• Individual and Group Research = 271
• Peer Review and Evaluation = 272
• Evaluation Criteria and Prioritization = 273
• PREVIOUS RECOMMENDATIONS AND INITIATIVES = 274
• GOALS, RESEARCH AREAS, OBJECTIVES, AND RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES = 276
• PRIORITY THEMES AND RESEARCH SELECTIONS = 277
• Selection of Top- and Higli-Priority Research = 277
• Priority Theme I: Global Palcoenvironments and Biological Evolution = 283
• Priority Theme II: Global Gcochcmical and Biogcochcmical Cycles = 286
• Priority Theme III: Fluids in and on the Earth = 287
• Priority Theme IV: Cruscal Dynamics―Ocean and Continents = 290
• Priority Theme V: Core and Mantle Dynamics = 293
• Priority Theme B: To Sustain Sufficient Natural Resources = 295
• Priority Theme C: To Mitigate Geological Hazards = 299
• Priority Theme D: To Minimize and Adjust to the Effects of Global and Environmental Changes = 300
• RESEARCH IMPLEMENTATION: FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, AND DATA NEEDS = 302
• Space-Based Instruments and Programs = 303
• Aircraft-Based Instruments and Programs = 305
• Land-Surface-Bascd Instruments and Programs = 305
• Sea-Surface-Based Instruments and Facilities = 306
• Laboratory Instrumentation and Facilities = 307
• Data Collection and Storage = 307
• FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF PRIORITY RESEARCH = 309
• Current Agency Expenditures = 309
• Industry Support of University Research = 309
• Suggestions for Future Funding = 311
• RECOMMENDATIONS = 311
• Education Recommendations = 311
• Research Recommendations = 312
• General Recommendations = 314
• BIBLIOGRAPHY = 317
• APPENDIX A = 319
• APPENDIX B = 330
• INDEX = 340