Motivation : theories and principles

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• Preface = ⅸ
• 1 The Nature of Motivation Theory = 1
• Introduction = 2
• What Is Motivational Psychology About? = 2
• A Preliminary Definition of Motivation = 3
• How Free are We to Act as We Wish? = 3
• The Problem of Freedom = 3
• Determinism = 4
• The Mind-Body Puzzle = 6
• Dualisms = 7
• Monisms = 9
• Scientific Theory = 12
• Why We Must Have Theory = 12
• Nature of Scientific Theory = 13
• Criteria for Goodness of a Theory = 15
• Explanation = 17
• The Language of Science = 17
• Syntactics : Rules for Using Signs = 18
• Semantics : Rules for Using Words = 18
• Operational Definitions of Psychological Concepts = 19
• Circular Definitions = 20
• Intervening Variables = 20
• Putting Together a Theory = 22
• Defining Motivation = 24
• The Regulatory Approach = 25
• The Purposive Approach = 25
• Motivational Intervening Variables = 26
• Desire and Aversion as Intervening Variables = 26
• 2 Emotional Foundations of Motivation = 32
• Introduction = 33
• What Purpose Do Emotions Serve? = 33
• The Beginnings of Modern Research and Theory = 34
• The James-Lange Theory = 34
• The Cannon-Bard Theory = 35
• Discovery of Important Subcortical Brain Structures = 36
• Contemporary Study of Emotion = 36
• Structure of Affect = 37
• Defining Emotions as Intervening Variables = 38
• The Measurement of Emotion = 39
• The Biology of Emotion = 42
• Divisions of the Nervous System = 42
• Hemispheric Differences in Emotion = 43
• Subcortical Structures for Positive Affect = 43
• Subcortical Structures for Negative Affect = 48
• Theories of Emotion = 48
• Discrete Emotion Theories = 48
• Evidence for Discrete Emotions = 49
• Dimensional Theories of Emotion = 54
• Cognitive Theories of Emotion = 59
• Overview of Motivation and Emotion = 67
• Discrete Theories = 67
• Dimensional Theories = 67
• Cognitive Theories = 67
• 3 Species Specific Behaviors = 69
• Introductory Examples = 70
• The Curious Case of the Cowbird = 70
• Cricket Song = 71
• The Problems of Instinct Theory = 72
• Meanings of Instinct = 72
• History of the Instinct Concept = 74
• The Ethological Approach to Behavior = 78
• The Ethogram = 78
• Erbkoordination = 78
• Hierarchical Ordering of Action = 79
• Vacuum Reactions and Displacement = 79
• The Evolution of Behavior = 81
• Darwin's Theory = 81
• Mendel's Theory of Genes = 82
• Evolutionary versus Environmental Contributions to Behavior = 84
• Evolutionary Psychology = 88
• Stimulus Control of Species-Specific Behavior = 90
• Examples = 90
• Releasing Stimuli = 91
• Interaction of Internal States and Releasers = 92
• Acquired Stimulus Control = 92
• 4 Eating and Taste = 96
• Classic Homeostatic Theory = 97
• Constancy of the Internal Environment = 97
• Homeostasis = 97
• Homeostatic Signals = 98
• Hunger as a Homeostatic Need = 99
• Feedback and Feed Forward Signals = 99
• Inherent Limitations of the Homeostatic Model = 101
• Brain Mechanisms for Feeding = 103
• The Dual Hypothalamic Theory of Hunger = 103
• Pleasure Centers and Feeding = 106
• Taste and Feeding = 108
• Palatability = 108
• Taste Qualities and Their Stimuli = 108
• Primary Taste Qualities and Hunger = 108
• Learning and Consummatory Behavior = 111
• The Classical Conditioning Paradigm = 111
• What Is Learned in Classical Conditioning? = 113
• Conditioning and Feeding Behavior = 116
• Social Factors in Eating = 118
• Eating Disorders and Their Treatment = 120
• Definition of Eating Disorders = 120
• Obesity = 120
• Anorexia Nervosa = 122
• Anorexia Bulimia = 123
• 5 Thirst, Temperature Regulation, Addiction, and Reproduction = 125
• Thirst and Drinking = 126
• Regulatory Drinking = 126
• Nonregulatory Drinking = 130
• Do Animals Learn to Avoid Getting Thirsty? = 131
• Regulation of Body Temperature = 132
• Mechanisms of Temperature Regulation = 134
• Organization of Thermoregulatory Responses = 135
• Fever = 136
• Drug Addiction = 137
• General Principles of Drug Action = 137
• Nonspecific Factors Affecting Drug Actions = 138
• How Do We Identify Addiction? = 139
• Theories of Addiction = 139
• Reproductive Behavior = 143
• Sexual Arousal versus Sexual Arousability = 143
• What Stimuli Are Important in Sexual Attraction? = 143
• Internal Factors = 145
• Emotions and Sex = 146
• The Human Sexual Response = 147
• Sexual Orientation = 148
• 6 Drive and Activation = 151
• Drive Theory = 152
• Background = 152
• Hull's Drive Theory = 153
• Why Do We Call Some Variables Motivational? = 155
• Evaluating Drive Theory = 156
• Human Applications of Drive Theory = 157
• Drive Stimulus Theory = 159
• Learned Drives = 160
• Fear as an Acquired Drive = 160
• Activation Theory = 164
• Background = 164
• RAS Activation = 164
• Optimal Level of Arousal Theory = 166
• Comparison of Drive and Activation Theories = 170
• Problems with RAS Activation Theory = 170
• Environmental Stimulation and Arousal = 171
• Humor and Aesthetics = 174
• 7 Rewards as Reinforcers = 178
• Instrumental Conditioning = 179
• Thorndike and the Law of Effect = 179
• Skinner and Operant Conditioning = 181
• When to Deliver Rewards = 182
• Bridging Delay between Response and Reinforcement = 182
• Extinction = 183
• Generalization and Discrimination = 183
• Building Behavior by Shaping = 183
• Maintaining Behavior : Schedules of Reinforcement = 184
• Theories of Rewards as Reinforcers = 187
• Response Theories = 187
• Motivational Theories = 189
• Stimulus Theories = 190
• Secondary Reinforcement = 192
• Intrinsic Motivation Versus External Rewards = 194
• Self-Determination Theory = 194
• Expanded Reinforcement Theory : Behavioral Economics = 197
• 8 Rewards as Incentives = 201
• The Concept of Incentive Motivation = 202
• Are Rewards Necessary for Learning? = 202
• How Does Incentive Motivation Develop? = 207
• Response Mediation Theory = 207
• Classically Conditioned Responses as Mediators($$r_g$$ Theory) = 207
• Central Processes : Emotional Mediation = 209
• Incentive Valence = 210
• General Theoretical Approaches = 211
• Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism = 211
• Young's Experimental Hedonism = 214
• Two-Process Learning Theory = 215
• Lang's Affect Modulation Theory = 217
• Incentives and Fantasy = 220
• Commitments and Concerns = 220
• Disengagement from Incentives = 220
• 9 Escape, Fear, Avoidance, and Punishment = 222
• Instrumental Escape Learning = 223
• Variables Affecting Animal Escape Learning = 223
• Theories for Escape Learning = 225
• Conditioned Aversion : Fear = 227
• Historical Background and Clinical Importance = 227
• Unlearned Sources of Fear = 227
• Learned Sources of Fear = 228
• Classical Conditioning of Fear = 229
• Preattentive Conditioning = 230
• Phobias = 232
• Modifying Fears = 232
• Avoidance Learning = 234
• Laboratory Avoidance = 234
• Interpretations of Avoidance Behavior = 236
• Evidence for Fear in Avoidance = 237
• Is a CS Necessary for Avoidance? = 240
• Cognitive Interpretations of Avoidance = 242
• Punishment = 243
• Defining Punishment = 244
• Suppressive Effects of Punishment = 244
• Response Factors in Punishment = 245
• Stimulus Factors in Punishment = 245
• Potential Problems Using Punishment = 247
• 10 Frustration, Conflict, Anxiety, Stress, and Coping = 249
• Frustration = 250
• Frustration Defined as an Intervening Variable = 250
• Frustration as Emotion = 251
• Frustration and Opponent Process Theory = 252
• Variables Affecting the Intensity of Frustration Responses = 252
• Frustration as Drive = 253
• Conflict Theory = 257
• Conflict as a Source of Frustration = 257
• Miller's Theory of Conflict = 257
• Anxiety = 261
• Anxiety versus Fear = 261
• State versus Trait Anxiety = 262
• General Theories of Anxiety = 263
• Cognitive Aspects of Anxiety = 265
• Stress = 266
• Historical Background : The General Adaptation Syndrome = 266
• Definitions of Stress = 267
• Sources of Stress = 268
• Stress and the Environment = 268
• Individual Differences in Susceptibility to Stress = 270
• Stress and Control = 271
• Lack of Control and Learned Helplessness = 274
• Personality Moderators of Stress = 277
• A Brighter Outlook on Stress = 279
• Coping = 280
• Nature of Coping = 280
• Classification of Coping Mechanisms = 280
• Stress Management Techniques = 281
• 11 Aggression and Altruism = 284
• Agression = 285
• What Do We Mean by Aggression? = 286
• Animal Aggressive Behavior = 285
• Multiprocess Views of Aggression = 286
• Environmental Causes of Animal Aggression = 287
• Biological Conditions = 288
• Hormones and Neurotransmitters = 289
• Human Aggression = 290
• The Role of Intent = 290
• Variables Influencing Human Aggression = 291
• Environmental Factors = 291
• Social Factors = 294
• Television Viewing and Aggression = 296
• Theories of Human Aggression = 299
• Drive Theory = 299
• Social Learning Theory = 302
• Social Cognitive Theory = 303
• Social Interaction Theory = 305
• Control of Aggression = 307
• The Institution of War and Other Evils = 308
• Altruism = 310
• Bystander Apathy = 311
• Situational Influences = 311
• Characteristics of the Victim = 313
• Characteristics of the Helper = 313
• Theories of Prosocial Behavior = 314
• The Role of Empathy = 316
• 12 Personality and Individual Differences = 318
• Theories of Personality = 319
• Trait Theories = 319
• Dynamic(Motivational) Theories = 320
• Achievement Motivation = 322
• McClelland's Theory = 322
• Atkinson's Expectancy-Value Theory = 325
• Attribution Theory and Achievement Motivation = 331
• The Spence-Helmreich Achievement Theory = 335
• Power and Control Motives = 336
• Power Motivation = 336
• Competence and Effectance = 339
• Desire for Control = 340
• Sensation Seeking = 341
• Description and Measurement of Sensation Seeking = 341
• Theory of Sensation Seeking = 343
• Information Processing Motives = 345
• Control Theory = 345
• Hunt's Information Processing Model = 347
• Loewenstein's Information-Gap Theory = 348
• The Need for Closure = 349
• The Need for Cognition = 350
• 13 Attitudes and Cognitive Consistency = 352
• The Nature of Attitudes = 353
• What Do We Mean by Attitude? = 353
• Attitude Measurement = 354
• When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? = 356
• Biology of Attitudes = 357
• Processes Underlying Attitude Development and Change = 358
• Dual Process Theories = 358
• Classical Conditioning = 359
• Imitation and Reinforcement = 362
• Attitudes and Cognitive Consistency = 362
• Meaning of Cognitive Consistency = 363
• Balance Theory = 363
• Are Consistency Effects Conscious? = 365
• Attitudes and Cognitive Dissonance = 366
• When Prophecy Fails = 366
• Definition of Cognitive Dissonance = 366
• Attitude Change and Forced Compliance = 367
• Conditions Necessary to Produce Attitude Change = 368
• Major Questions about Dissonance Theory = 369
• Alternative Explanations for Dissonance Effects = 372
• Conformity and Nonconformity = 375
• 14 Interpersonal Attraction = 377
• Affiliation = 378
• Why Do People Affiliate? = 378
• Biological Factors in Affiliation = 378
• Interpersonal Attraction = 381
• Physical Attractiveness = 381
• Other Determinants of Attractiveness = 383
• Evolutionary Approaches to Attractiveness = 385
• Theories of Liking and Loving = 389
• A Bit of Background = 389
• Theories = 389
• 15 Applications of Motivation Theory = 397
• Job Motivation and Satisfaction = 398
• Orientation to Job Motivation = 398
• Theories of Job Motivation = 400
• Job Satisfaction = 405
• Theories of Job Satisfaction = 407
• Motivation in Sports = 409
• Orientation = 409
• What Motivation Theories Apply to Sports? = 410
• Why Do People Play Sports? = 410
• Why Do People Watch Sports? = 412
• Motivation and Sports Performance = 413
• Aggression in Sports = 415
• Environment and Performance = 417
• Motivation and Advertising = 418
• The Communication Model = 419
• The Source = 420
• The Message = 421
• The Audience = 422
• Subliminal Advertising = 422
• Self-Help Tapes = 423
• References = 426
• Author Index = 457
• Subject Index = 463