전후 미국의 대(對)독일 문화정책과 ‘문화의 미국화’ 기획 - 1950, 60년대 포드재단의 활동을 중심으로 - = U.S. Cultural Policy and the ‘Americanization’ of Culture in Germany - Focusing on the Role of the Ford Foundation during 1950s and 1960s

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

This paper is concerned with the role of the Ford Foundation in Germany during 1950s and 1960s and with the ways in which their activities related to the projection of America's political, economic, and cultural power in Europe at the age of the cold war. The Ford Foundation had been in existence since 1936, but its prewar endowment remained small. In the last half of 1940s it became the largest philanthropic organization in the world. And through an increasingly closer link between the foundation's activities and U.S. foreign policy it became close partners in the cold culture wars.
After a number of small programs like publications and financial support for German papers the foundation launched several cultural programs. Among them were a grant to the Free University and support for scholarly exchanges. A more ambitious program was aid to some of the activities carried on by the “Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF)”. The CCF was an anti-communist advocacy group founded in 1950. Until it was revealed that the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency(CIA) was instrumental in the establishment and management of the European intellectuals, the CCF was “the most effective organization in Europe working among political, intellectual, and cultural leaders” against communist threat.
The U.S. cultural policy and especially the activities of the foundation were a response to the growing activities of the Soviets in Europe. At the same time, more attention and money was given to cultural and scholarly causes in Germany to counter the persistent anti-Americanism. Many director of German program in the foundation have experienced that Germans and the Europeans more generally thought of American culture as a “trashy”, “vulgar” and “primitive” mass culture. So they tried to demonstrate how much these European notions of American culture were based on prejudice born of ignorance. The activities of the Ford Foundation were a larger attempt by the U.S. elites to convince their Western European counterparts that their impressions of America as lacking a hight culture were false.

참고문헌 (Reference)

1 오유석, "한국전쟁에 대한 11가지 시선" 역사비평사 21-, 2010

2 정일준, "한국전쟁 이후 이승만 정권시기 미국의 대한 정책, 1953-60. 통일, 안보, 경제정책의 상호관계를 중심으로" 28 (28): 193-223, 2002

3 원용진, "한국 대중문화, 미국과 함께 혹은 따로, In 미국은 우리에게 무엇인가. 한미관계의 역사와 우리 안의 미국주의" 백의 160-181, 2000

4 張泳敏, "정부 수립 이후(1948-1950) 미국의 선전정책" 한국근현대사학회 (31) : 272-300, 2004

5 존 루이스 게디스, "새로 쓰는 냉전의 역사" 사회평론 108-, 2002

6 김균, "미군정기 대 남한 공보정책. “미국을 심어라”, In 미국은 우리에게 무엇인가. 한미관계의 역사와 우리안의 미국주의" 백의 121-141, 2000

7 김균, "미국의 대외 문화정책을 통해 본 미군정 문화정책" 44 (44): 40-75, 2000

8 정일준, "미국의 냉전문화정치와 한국인 ‘친구 만들기’: 1950, 60년대 미공보원(USIS)의 조직과 활동을 중심으로, In 우리 학문 속의 미국. 미국적 학문 패러다임 이식에 대한 비판적 성찰" 한울 아카데미 21-50, 2003

9 Francis X. Sutton, "“The Ford Foundation and Europe: Ambitions and Ambivalences, In Ford Foundation and Europe" 21-66, 1998

10 Stefan Paulus, "Vorbild USA? Amerikanisierung von Universitat und Wissenschaft in Westdeutschland 1945-1976" 2010

11 Karl-Ernst Bungenstab, "Umerziehung zur Demokratie? Re-education-Politk im Bildungswesen der US-Zone 1945-1949" 1970

12 John W. Henderson, "The United States Information Agency" 1969

13 James V. Compton, "The Swastika and the Eagle: Hitler, the United States, and the Origins of the Second World War" 1967

14 Robert A. Fosdick, "The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation" 1952

15 David Caute, "The Great Fear. The Anti-Communist Purge under Truman and Eisenhower" New York 1978

16 James F. Tent, "The Free University of Berlin. A Political History" 209-,

17 Tent, "The Free University of Berlin" 281-,

18 Frank A. Ninkovich, "The Diplomacy of Ideas. U.S. Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938-1950" 1981

19 Ninkovich, "The Diplomacy of Ideas" 28-139,

20 Michael Wala, "The Council on Foreign Relations and American Foreign Policy in the Early Cold War" 1994

21 Ralph Willett, "The Americanization of Germany, 1945-1949" 22-, 1989

22 Thomas Klockner, "Strukturanalyse der Organisation und Strategien der US Information Agency und des US Information Service in Deutschland" 1992

23 Winfried Muller, "Schulpolitik in Bayern im Spannungsfeld von Kultusburokratie und Besatzungsmacht 1945-1949" 1995

24 Thomas A. Schwartz, "Reeducation and Democracy: The Policies of the United States High Commission in Germany, In America and the Shaping of German Society 1945-1955" f35-46, 1993

25 Schwartz, "Reeducation and Democracy" 37-44,

26 Volker R. Berghahn, "Philanthropy and Diplomacy in the American Century" 23 (23): 393-419, 1999

27 Berghahn, "Philanthropy and Diplomacy" 404-410,

28 D. McCarthy, "Philanthropy and Culture: The International Foundation Perspective" Philadelphia 1984

29 Richard Gid Powers, "Not without Honor: The History of American Anticommunism" 1995

30 Brian M. Puaca, "Learning Democracy. Education Reform in West Germany, 1945-1955" New York 2009

31 Frank Schumacher, "Kalter Krieg und Propaganda. Die USA, der Kampf um die Weltmeinung und die ideelle Westbindung der BRD, 1945-1955" 110-, 2000

32 Kathleen D. McCarthy, "From Cold War to Cultural Development: The International Cultural Activities of the Ford Foundation, 1950-1980" 116 (116): 93-117, 1987

33 McCarthy, "From Cold War to Cultural Development" 94-99,

34 Michael Hochgeschwender, "Freiheit in der Offensive? Der Kongreß fur kulturelle Freiheit und die Deutschen" 86-139, 1998

35 Hochgeschwender, "Freiheit in der Offensive?" 164-314,

36 J. Robert Wegs, "Europe since 1945: A Concise History" 1991

37 Beate Rosenzweig, "Erziehung zur Demokratie? Amerikanische Besatzungs- und Schulreformpolitik in Deutschland und Japan" Stuttgart 1998

38 Fussl, "Die Umerziehung der Deutschen. Jugend und Schule unter den Siegermachten des Zweiten Weltkriegs 1945-1955"

39 Karl-Heinz Fussl, "Die Umerziehung der Deutschen. Jugend und Schule unter den Siegermachten des Zweiten Weltkriegs 1945-1955" 1994

40 Axel Schildt, "Die USA als ?Kulturnation?. Zur Bedeutung der Amerikahauser in den 1950er Jahren, In Amerikanisierung: Traum und Alptraum im Deutschland des 20. Jahrhunderts" 257-269,

41 Schildt, "Die USA als ?Kulturnation?" 259-,

42 Alexander Stephan, "Culture Clash? Die Amerikanisierung der Bundesrepublik Deutschalnd, In America on my mind. Zur Amerikanisierung der deutschen Kultur seit 1945" 29-50, 2006

43 Stephan, "Culture Clash?" 29-32,

44 Manuela Aguilar, "Cultural Diplomacy and Foreign Policy. German-American Relations 1955-1968" 1996

45 Mane?s Sperber, "Bis man mir Scherben auf die Augen legt" 1982

46 Jan C. Behrends, "Antiamerikanismus im 20. Jahrhundert. Studien zu Ost- und Westeuropa" 2005

47 Alf Ludtke, "Amerikanisierung: Traum und Alptraum im Deutschland des 20. Jahrhunderts" Stuttgart 1996

48 Konrad Jarausch, "Amerikanisierung und Sowjetisierung in Deutschland 1945-1970" 1997

49 Alexander Stephan, "Americanization and Anti-Americanism. The German Encounter with American Culture after 1945" New York 2005

50 Merle Curti, "American Philanthropy Abroad: A History" 411-, 1963

51 Curti, "American Philanthropy Abroad" 219-,

52 Robert A. Brenner, "American Philanthropy" 1988

53 Thomas A Schwartz, "America's Germany. John J. McCloy and the Federal Republic of Germany" 1991

54 Volker R. Berghahn, "America and the Intellectual Cold Wars in Europe. Shepard Stone between Philanthropy, Academy, and Diplomacy" 2001

55 Berghahn, "America and the Intellectual Cold Wars" 96-302,

56 Frank Trommler, "A New Start and Old Prejudices. The Cold War and German-American Cultural Relations, In The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War 1945-1968, Vol. 1" 371-387,