Metal nanoparticles (MNPs), particularly gold nanoparticles (GNPs), have been widely investigated due to their unique physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, and relatively low toxicity. Accurate quantification of their biodistribution is essent...
Metal nanoparticles (MNPs), particularly gold nanoparticles (GNPs), have been widely investigated due to their unique physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, and relatively low toxicity. Accurate quantification of their biodistribution is essential for evaluating pharmacokinetics and optimizing their applications in drug delivery, radiosensitization, and imaging contrast. Ex vivo quantification methods, such as inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, offer very low detection limits and high reliability, but they require complex sample preparation processes, such as lyophilization, dissolution, and dilution. In addition, optical fluorescence imaging has been used to determine the in vivo biodistribution of MNPs. However, these optical-based modalities suffer from shallow penetration depths, typically limited to a few mm, which makes them insufficient for small-animal imaging. As a result, there is a need for alternative approaches that can determine the in vivo biodistribution of MNPs quantitatively with sufficient penetration depth for small-animal imaging.
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) imaging has recently gained attention as a molecular imaging modality capable of detecting MNPs at biologically relevant concentrations with penetration depths surpassing those of optical techniques. Benchtop XRF imaging systems with polychromatic X-ray sources have been extensively investigated, with recent efforts focused on improving scan time, imaging dose, and detection limit. Nonetheless, several challenges remain. Early systems using single-crystal detectors required rotational or translational scanning, resulting in long scan times and relatively high imaging doses. This limited the feasibility of XRF imaging for routine preclinical in vivo applications. Moreover, while XRF imaging provides valuable functional information on the in vivo biodistribution of MNPs, it lacks complementary anatomical information, such as that provided by computed tomography (CT), complicating the accurate localization of this biodistribution. These challenges underscore the importance of developing systems that combine improved scan time, imaging dose, detection limit, and multimodal capabilities.
This dissertation aims to address these challenges by developing a benchtop XRF imaging system tailored for preclinical in vivo applications. First, a dual-modality XRF/CT imaging system integrating a single-pinhole XRF imaging system with CT was developed to provide both functional and anatomical information in GNP-injected living mice. Second, a multi-pinhole XRF imaging system integrating an excellent energy resolution pixelated cadmium zinc telluride detector was developed to achieve biologically relevant detection limits with reduced scan time and imaging dose. The dual-modality XRF/CT imaging system successfully acquired functional information on the in vivo biodistribution of GNPs in the kidney and bladder slices of living mice. Furthermore, complementary anatomical information acquired from CT enabled accurate co-registration of functional and anatomical information. The multi-pinhole XRF imaging system achieved a detection limit of 0.105 mg/mL, corresponding to approximately 100 ppm of gold, with a scan time of 10 min and an imaging dose of 51.5 cGy. Together, these systems demonstrate significant advancements. Specifically, the dual-modality XRF/CT imaging system provides complementary anatomical information for accurate localization of the in vivo biodistribution of GNPs. Meanwhile, the multi-pinhole XRF imaging system achieves scan time and imaging dose within acceptable ranges for preclinical in vivo imaging, as well as a biologically relevant detection limit for gold. The findings of this dissertation provide a technical basis for improved preclinical in vivo imaging of MNPs.