Risk assessment in environmental management : a guide for managing chemical contamination problems

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• Preface = xvii
• PART Ⅰ : A GENERAL OVERVIEW
• 1. Introduction = 3
• 1.1 An Agenda for Global Environmental Protection = 3
• 1.1.1 Environmental Management in a Socio-economic Context = 4
• 1.1.2 Harmonizing global Environmental Management Policies = 5
• 1.2 Minimizing Environmental Contamination Problems = 6
• 1.2.1 Components of a Good Waste Management Program = 7
• 1.2.2 Pollution Abatement Strategies and Policies = 9
• 1.3 Facing Up to Environmental Chemicals in Society = 10
• 1.4 Risk Assessment as a Facilitator of Cost-Effective Environmental Management Decisions = 11
• Suggested Further Reading = 13
• References = 13
• 2. The nature of environmental contamination problems = 15
• 2.1 Sources of Environmental Pollutants = 15
• 2.1.1 Industry as a Major Generator of Environmental Pollutants = 17
• 2.1.2 Hazardous Materials Release and Behavior in the Environment = 18
• 2.2 Health, Environmental, and Socio-Economic Implications of Environmental Contamination Problems = 18
• 2.3 A Hazard Categorization System for environmental Contamination Problems = 30
• Suggested Further Reading = 32
• References = 32
• 3. Characterization of environmental Contamination problems = 35
• 3.1 The Environmental Characterization Process = 35
• 3.1.1 The Sampling and Analysis Plan = 35
• 3.1.2 The Health and Safety Plan = 41
• 3.1.3 The Quality Assurance／Quality Control Plan = 43
• 3.2 Designing an Environmental Characterization Program = 44
• 3.3 Implementation of an Environmental Characterization Program = 45
• Suggested Further Reading = 47
• References = 47
• 4. Legislative-regulatory control needs for the management of environmental contamination problems = 51
• 4.1 The Nature of Environmental Regulations = 51
• 4.1.1 Environmental Laws in North America = 52
• 4.1.2 Environmental Laws within the European Community Bloc = 55
• 4.1.3 Environmental Policies and Regulations in Different Parts of the World = 59
• 4.2 A Paradigm of Contemporary International environmental Law Suggested Further Reading = 62
• References = 62
• PART Ⅱ : PRINCIPLES OF RISK ASSESSMENT
• 5. Fundamentals of hazard, exposure, and risk assessment = 67
• 5.1 The Nature of Hazard and Risk = 67
• 5.1.1 Basis for Measuring Risks = 70
• 5.2 Risk Assessment Defined = 72
• 5.3 Purpose and Attributes of Risk Assessment = 73
• 5.3.1 The Purpose = 74
• 5.3.2 The Attributes = 75
• Suggested Further Reading = 76
• References = 77
• 6. The risk assessment process = 79
• 6.1 Hazard Identification and Accounting = 80
• 6.1.1 Hazard Identification and Accounting = 80
• 6.1.2 Exposure-Response Evaluation = 81
• 6.1.3 Exposure Assessment and Analysis = 81
• 6.1.4 Risk Characterization and Consequence Determination = 82
• 6.2 Risk Assessment as a Diagnostic Tool = 82
• 6.2.1 Baseline Risk Assessments = 83
• 6.3 Risk Assessment in Practice = 84
• 6.4 Risk Assessment as an Holistic Tool for Environmental Management = 87
• Suggested Further Reading = 88
• References = 88
• 7. Basic concepts in risk assessment practice = 91
• 7.1 Individual versus Group Risks = 91
• 7.2 What Constitutes an 'Acceptable' Risk? = 92
• 7.2.1 The Risk Acceptability Criteria : de Minimis versus de Manifestis Risks = 92
• 7.2.2 Consideration of Risk Perception Issues = 94
• 7.3 Conservatisms in Risk Assessments = 95
• 7.4 Recognition of Uncertainty as an Integral Component of Risk Assessment = 96
• 7.5 Risk Assessment versus Risk Management = 97
• Suggested Further Reading = 97
• References = 98
• PART Ⅲ : PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS OF A RISK ASSESSMENT
• 8. Determination of contaminant fate and behavior in the environment = 103
• 8.1 The Cross-Media Transfer of Contaminants between Environmental Compartments = 103
• 8.1.1 Phase Distribution of Environmental Contaminants = 104
• 8.2 Important fate and Transport Properties, Processes, and Parameters of Environmental Contaminants = 107
• 8.2.1 Physical State = 107
• 8.2.2 Water Solubility = 107
• 8.2.3 Diffusion = 108
• 8.2.4 Dispersion = 108
• 8.2.5 Volatilization = 108
• 8.2.6 Partitioning and the Partition Coefficients = 109
• 8.2.7 Sorption and the Retardation Factor = 112
• 8.2.8 Degradation = 114
• 8.3 The Modeling of Contaminant Migration in a Contaminant Fate and Transport Assessment = 115
• 8.3.1 Utility and Application of Environmental Models = 116
• 8.3.2 Model Selection = 117
• 8.3.3. Selected Environmental Models Potentially Applicable to Risk Assessment Studies and Environmental Management Programs = 117
• 8.4 Selected Environmental Fate Algorithms for Estimating Contaminant Concentrations = 137
• 8.4.1 Estimation of Contaminant Concentrations in Air = 137
• 8.4.2 Estimation of Contaminant Concentrations in Soils = 145
• 8.4.3 Estimation of Contaminant Concentrations in Water = 145
• 8.4.4 Estimation of Contaminant Concentrations in Vegetation = 146
• 8.4.5 Estimation of Contaminant Concentrations in Animal Products = 147
• 8.4.6 Estimation of Contaminant Concentrations in Fish Products = 148
• 8.5 Factors Affecting Contaminant Fate and Transport in the Environment = 149
• Suggested Further Reading = 150
• References = 150
• 9. Hazard indentification, data collection, and data evaluation = 155
• 9.1 Sources of Environmental Hazards = 155
• 9.2 Hazard Accounting and Environmental Investigation = 156
• 9.2.1 Development of Data Quality Objectives = 158
• 9.2.2 Design of an Environmental Investigation Program = 159
• 9.3 Data Collection and Analysis = 161
• 9.3.1 Data Collection and Analysis Strategies = 162
• 9.3.2 Background Sampling Consideration = 163
• 9.3.3 Evaluation of Quality Control Samples = 165
• 9.4 Evaluation of Environmental Sampling Date = 166
• 9.4.1 General Approach to the Statistical Analysis of Environmental Sampling Data = 167
• 9.4.2 Treatment of Censored Data in Environmental Samples = 172
• 9.5 Selecting the Chemicals of Potential Concern = 174
• Suggested Further Reading = 177
• References = 177
• 10 Design of Conceptual models and exposure analysis = 181
• 10.1 Design of Conceptual Models for Environmental Contamination Problems = 181
• 10.1.1 Elements of a Conceptual Site Model = 182
• 10.2 Development of Exposure Scenarios = 185
• 10.2.1 The Nature and Spectrum of Exposure Scenarios = 185
• 10.3 The Exposure Assessment Process = 187
• 10.3.1 Multimedia and Multipathway Exposure Modeling = 190
• 10.3.2 chemical Intake versus Dose = 193
• 10.3.3 Chronic versus Subchronic Exposures = 193
• 10.4 a Generic Exposure Estimation Model = 194
• 10.4.1 Receptor Age Adjustments to Human Exposure Factors = 195
• 10.4.2 Incorporating Contaminant Degradation into Exposure Calculations = 195
• 10.4.3 Averaging Exposure Estimates = 197
• 10.5 Utility of the Exposure Characterization = 198
• Suggested Further Reading = 199
• References = 199
• 11. The toxicology of environmental contaminants and hazard effects determination = 203
• 11.1 Identification of Toxic Substances = 203
• 11.1.1 Manifestations of Toxicity = 203
• 11.1.2 Dose-Response Relationships = 204
• 11.2 Categorization of Human Toxic Effects = 207
• 11.2.1 Basis for the 'Threshold' versus 'Nonthreshold' Concepts = 208
• 11.2.2 Determination of Chemical Carcinogenicity = 208
• 11.2.3 Carcinogen Classification Systems = 209
• 11.3 Evaluation of Chemical Toxicity = 213
• 11.3.1 Hazard Effects Assessment = 213
• 11.3.2 Dose-Response Assessment = 216
• 11.4 Utility of the Hazard Effects Assessment = 218
• Suggested Further Reading = 219
• References = 219
• 12. Risk characterization and uncertainty analysis = 223
• 12.1 Risk Presentation and Summarization = 223
• 12.1.1 Graphical Presentation of the Risk Summary Information = 224
• 12.1.2 Presenting and Managing Uncertain Risks = 224
• 12.2 Uncertainty and Variability Issues in Risk Assessment = 229
• 12.2.1 The Need for Uncertainty and Variability analyses = 229
• 12.3 Types and Nature of Uncertainty = 230
• 12.3.1 Common Sources of Uncertainty in Endangerment Assessments = 231
• 12.4 Analysis of Uncertainties and Variability = 233
• 12.4.1 Qualitative Analysis of Uncertainties = 234
• 12.4.2 Quantitative Analysis of Uncertainties = 234
• 12.5 Utility of a Risk Analysis = 237
• Suggested further Reading = 238
• References = 238
• PART Ⅳ : RISK ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES AND METHODS OF APPROACH
• 13. Human health risk assessments = 243
• 13.1 The Health Risk Assessment Methodology = 243
• 13.2 Potential Receptor Exposures to Environmental Contaminants = 245
• 13.2.1 Potential Receptor Inhalation Exposures = 247
• 13.2.2 Potential Receptor Ingestion Exposures = 250
• 13.2.3 Potential Receptor Dermal Exposures = 254
• 13.2.4 Computation of 'Intake Factors' for Exposure Assessment : Illustration of the Calculation of Chemical Intakes and Doses = 256
• 13.3 Determination of Toxicological Parameters Used in Human Health Risk Assessments = 267
• 13.3.1 Toxicity Parameters for Noncarcinogenic Effects = 267
• 13.3.2 Toxicity Parameters for Carcinogenic Effects = 273
• 13.3.3 The Use of Surrogate Toxicity Parameters = 276
• 13.4 Risk Characterization = 279
• 13.4.1 Absorption Adjustments = 280
• 13.4.2 Aggregate Effects of Chemical Mixtures = 282
• 13.4.3 Estimation of Carcinogenic Risks to Human Health = 283
• 13.4.4 Estimation of Noncarcinogenic Hazards to Human Health = 286
• 13.4.5 Risk Computations : Illustration of the Processes for Calculating Carcinogenic Risks and Noncarcinogenic Hazards = 288
• 13.5 Human Health Risk Assessment in Practice = 295
• Suggested Further Reading = 296
• References = 296
• 14. Ecological risk assessments = 299
• 14.1 The Ecological Risk Assessment Methodology = 299
• 14.1.1 Ecological Hazard Evaluation = 302
• 14.1.2 Exposure Assessment : The Characterization of Ecological Exposures = 307
• 14.1.3 Ecotoxicity Assessment : The Characterization of Ecological Effects = 310
• 14.1.4 Ecological risk Characterization = 311
• 14.2 A General Framework for Ecological Risk Assessments = 313
• 14.2.1 The Problem Formulation Phase = 314
• 14.2.2 The Problem Analysis Phase = 314
• 14.2.3 The Risk Characterization Phase = 315
• 14.3 Ecological Risk Assessment in Practice = 315
• 14.3.1 The General Purpose = 318
• 14.3.2 General Considerations in Ecological Investigations = 319
• 14.4 A Comparative Look at the Parallel Nature of Ecological and Human Health Endangerment Assessments = 320
• Suggested Further Reading = 322
• References = 322
• 15. Probabilistic risk assessments = 325
• 15.1 The Probabilistic Risk Assessment Methodology = 325
• 15.1.1 Event-Tree Modeling and Analysis = 326
• 15.1.2 Fault-Tree Modeling and Analysis = 330
• 15.1.3 Other PRA Techniques and Tools = 335
• 15.2 Probabilistic Risk Assessment in Practice = 336
• 15.2.1 A PRA Demonstration Problem = 338
• 15.3 Utility of Probabilistic Risk Assessments = 340
• Suggested Further Reading = 341
• References = 341
• PART Ⅴ : DETERMINATION OF ACCEPTABLE RISK-BASED LIMITS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS
• 16. General protocols for establishing acceptable chemical concentrations and environmental quality criteria = 345
• 16.1 Requirements and Criteria for Establishing Risk-Based Target Levels for Environmental Chemicals = 345
• 16.2 Derivation of Health-Based Action Levels for Environmental Chemicals = 347
• 16.2.1 Action Levels for Carcinogenic Chemicals = 348
• 16.2.2 Action Levels for Noncarcinogenic Chemicals／systemic Toxicants = 349
• 16.3 Health-Protective Risk-Based Chemical Concentrations = 350
• 16.3.1 RBCs for Carcinogenic Constituents = 351
• 16.3.2 RBCs for Noncarcinogenic Effects of Chemical Constituents = 352
• 16.4 A 'Preferable' Health-Protective chemical Level = 353
• 16.4.1 The Modified RBC for Carcinogenic Chemicals = 354
• 16.4.2 The Modified RBC for Noncarcinogenic Constituents = 355
• 16.5 Health-Protective Chemical Concentrations in Consumer Products = 355
• 16.5.1 Formulation of Potential Consumer Exposures = 356
• 16.5.2 Assessing the chemical Safety of Consumer Products = 358
• 16.6 Miscellaneous Methods for Establishing Environmental quality Goals = 359
• 16.7 Incorporating Degradation Rates into the Estimation of Environmental Quality Criteria = 362
• 16.8 Utility of Environmental Benchmarks = 363
• Suggested Further Reading = 364
• References = 364
• 17. Development of risk-based remediation goals = 367
• 17.1 Factors Affecting the development of Risk-Based Site Restoration Goals = 367
• 17.2 Risk-Based Soil Cleanup Levels = 369
• 17.2.1 Soil Cleanup Level for Carcinogenic Contaminants = 370
• 17.2.2 Soil Cleanup Criteria for the Noncarcinogenic Effects of Site Contaminants = 371
• 17.3 Risk-Based Water Cleanup Levels = 373
• 17.3.1 Water Cleanup Level for Carcinogenic Contaminants = 374
• 17.3.2 Water Cleanup Level for the Noncarcinogenic Effects of Site Contaminants = 375
• 17.4 The Cleanup Decision in Site Restoration Programs = 377
• Suggested Further Reading = 378
• References = 379
• PART Ⅵ : THE ROLE OF RISK ASSESSMENT IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT DECISIONS
• 18. Illustrative examples of risk assessment practice = 383
• 18.1 Evaluation of Human Health Risks Associated with Airborne Exposures to Asbestos = 383
• 18.1.1 Study Objective = 384
• 18.1.2 Summary Results of the Environmental Sampling and analysis = 384
• 18.1.3 The Risk Estimation = 384
• 18.1.4 A Risk Management decision = 386
• 18.2 A Diagnostic Human Health Risk Assessment for a Contaminated Site Problem = 386
• 18.2.1 Introduction and Background = 386
• 18.2.2 Objective and Scope = 387
• 18.2.3 Technical Elements of the Diagnostic Risk Assessment Process = 387
• 18.2.4 Identification of Site contaminants = 389
• 18.2.5 Screening for Chemicals of Potential Concern = 389
• 18.2.6 Risk Characterization for Site-Specific Exposure Scenarios = 390
• 18.2.7 A Risk Management Decision = 400
• 18.3 A Risk-Based Strategy for Developing a Corrective Action Response Plan for Petroleum-Contaminated Sites = 400
• 18.3.1 Evaluation of Petroleum Product Constituents = 402
• 18.3.2 The Fate and Behavior of Petroleum Constituent Releases = 403
• 18.3.3 Contaminant Release Analysis = 404
• 18.3.4 The Corrective Action and Risk Management Decision Process = 405
• 18.4 General Scope of Risk Assessment Practice = 407
• Suggested Further Reading = 407
• References = 408
• 19. Design of Risk Management programs = 409
• 19.1 The General Nature of Risk Management Programs = 409
• 19.1.1 A System for Establishing Risk Management Needs = 412
• 19.1.2 Interim Corrective Action Programs = 414
• 19.1.3 Conditions for 'No-Further-Action' Decisions = 415
• 19.2 A Framework for Risk Management Programs = 416
• 19.3 Application of decision Analysis Methods to Environmental Management Programs = 418
• 19.3.1 Risk-Cost-Benefit Optimization and Tradeoffs Analysis = 420
• 19.3.2 Multi-attribute Decision Analysis and Utility Theory Applications = 421
• 19.4 Utilization of GIS in Risk Assessment and Environmental Management Programs = 426
• 19.4.1 Integration of Environmental and Risk Models with GIS = 426
• 19.4.2 The Role of GIS Applications in Environmental Management = 427
• 19.5 Risk Communication as a Facilitator of Risk Management = 428
• 19.5.1 Designing an Effective Risk Communication Program = 429
• 19.6 Managing Risks = 431
• Suggested further Reading = 431
• References = 432
• 20. Risk Assessment applications to environmental management problems = 435
• 20.1 General Scope of the Practical application of Risk Assessment to Environmental Problems = 435
• 20.2 Risk Assessment as a Cost-Effective Tool in the formulation of environmental Management Decisions = 445
• 20.3 A Concluding Note = 447
• Suggested Further Reading = 449
• References = 449
• PART Ⅶ : APPENDICES
• Appendix A Selected abbreviations and acronyms = 453
• Appendix B Glossary of selected terms and definitions = 457
• Appendix C Some basic definitions and concepts in probability theory and statistics = 475
• Appendix D Toxicological information for selected environmental chemicals = 481
• Appendix E Selected environmental tools and databases of potential relevance to risk assessment and environmental management programs = 485
• E.1 Selected Decision Support Tools and Logistical Computer Software = 485
• E.2 Selected Databases and Information Libraries with Important Risk Information for Risk Assessment and Environmental Management = 492
• Appendix F Selected units of measurements and noteworthy expressions = 499
• Appendix G Suggested reference journals = 501
• Index = 505