To breathe clean air : report of the National Commission on Air Quality

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• PART 1 : Introduction = 1
• PART 2 : Findings and Recommendations = 5
• CHAPTER 1 : Commission Findings = 7
• Establishment of Public Health Standards = 7
• Process for Setting Air Quality Standards = 7
• Hazardous Emission Standards = 10
• EPA Research = 10
• Multi-Media Pollutants = 11
• Indoor Air Pollution = 11
• Institutional Relationships and Resources = 12
• Responsibilities = 12
• Legal Authority = 12
• Resources = 12
• Data = 12
• Time = 13
• State／Local Interaction = 14
• EPA／State Interaction = 14
• Public Participation = 14
• Air Quality Status Designation = 14
• Nonattainment Program = 15
• 1979 State Plans = 16
• Particulates = 18
• Sulfur Dioxide = 18
• Ozone = 18
• Carbon Monoxide = 18
• Nitrogen Oxides = 19
• Inspection and Maintenance = 19
• Transportation Control Measures = 19
• Transport = 19
• Lowest Achievable Emission Rate = 20
• Emissions Offset Policy = 20
• Prevention of Significant Deterioration Program = 21
• General = 21
• PSD Permits = 21
• Best Available Control Technology = 22
• Air Increment System = 23
• Mobile Source Control = 28
• Gaseous Emission Standards = 29
• Diesel Paniculate Emissions = 30
• Fuel Economy = 31
• In-Use Emissions = 31
• Automobile Hydrocarbon Emissions = 33
• Automobile Carbon Monoxide Emissions = 33
• Automobile Nitrogen Oxides Standard = 33
• Diesel Automobile and Light Truck Particulate Standards = 34
• Light Truck Hydrocarbon and Carbon Monoxide Standards = 34
• Light Truck Nitrogen Oxides Standard = 35
• Heavy Truck Hydrocarbon and Carbon Monoxide Standards = 35
• Heavy Truck Nitrogen Oxides Standard = 35
• Vehicle Emissions at High Altitude = 35
• New Source Performance Standards = 38
• Enforcement Activities = 38
• Atmospheric Transport = 40
• Research, Development, and Demonstration = 44
• Economic Considerations = 45
• Effects of the Act on National Economic Indicators = 45
• Limitations of Cost and Benefit Estimates = 46
• Economic Effects on Regions and Industries = 46
• Economic Incentives = 47
• Energy and Air Quality = 49
• CHAPTER 2 : Commission Recommendations = 55
• Establishment of Public Health Standards = 55
• Primary Standard-Setting Process = 55
• Hazardous Emission Standards = 56
• EPA Research = 56
• Multimedia Pollutants = 56
• Indoor Air Pollution = 57
• Institutional Relationships and Resources = 57
• State Implementation Plan Process = 57
• Federal Support of Federal, State, and Local Programs = 58
• Role of Indian Tribes = 58
• Public Participation = 58
• Air Quality Status Designation = 58
• Nonattainment Program = 59
• Prevention of Significant Deterioration Program = 61
• Mobile Source Controls = 62
• New Source Performance Standards = 63
• Enforcement Activities = 63
• Atmospheric Transport = 64
• Research, Development, and Demonstration = 65
• Economic Considerations = 65
• Economic Incentives = 65
• Energy and Air Quality = 65
• PART 3 : Analysis of the Clean Air Act: Air Quality Effects = 67
• CHAPTER 1 : Standards to Protect the Public Health = 69
• Congressional Action = 69
• EPA Activities = 70
• National Ambient Air Quality Activities = 70
• Revision of Ambient Standards = 74
• Standards for Hazardous Pollutants = 76
• Integrated Policy on Toxic Pollutants = 80
• EPA Research Program = 80
• Interagency Approaches = 82
• Diesel Emissions = 82
• Synthetic Fuel Research Activities = 82
• Indoor Air Pollution = 83
• Multimedia Pollutants = 83
• Summary = 84
• References = 84
• CHAPTER 2 : Institutional Relationships and Resources = 87
• Agency Roles and Responsibilities = 87
• Environmental Protection Agency = 87
• Other Federal Agencies = 88
• States = 88
• Local and Regional Agencies = 88
• Indian Tribes = 88
• Summary = 89
• Ability of Agencies to Carry Out Responsibilities = 89
• Legal and Statutory Authority = 89
• Resources = 90
• Data and Equipment = 94
• Time = 97
• Effectiveness of Current Agency Programs: Interaction Among Agencies = 99
• Planning = 101
• Permitting = 102
• Source Monitoring = 102
• Public Support for Clean Air Strategies = 103
• Public Information and Participation Requirements = 103
• Public Notification About Air Quality Status = 103
• Public Participation in Air Quality Planning = 103
• Public Participation in Implementation = 104
• Summary = 104
• References = 105
• CHAPTER 3 : Air Quality Status Designation = 107
• Size of Designated Areas = 108
• Unclassified Areas = 108
• Summary = 109
• References = 109
• CHAPTER 4 : The Nonattainment Program = 111
• Overview of Present Air Quality Status = 112
• Ozone = 113
• Total Suspended Particulates = 114
• Carbon Monoxide = 114
• Sulfur Dioxide = 115
• Nitrogen Dioxide = 115
• Lead = 115
• Development of 1979 State Implementation Plans = 115
• Impact of Sanctions = 116
• State Implementation Plan Approval Status = 117
• Typical Control Strategies: Primary Standards = 117
• Maintenance of Standards = 120
• Effect of Growth Forecasts on Attainment Projections = 120
• Areas Expected Not to Meet Existing Deadlines = 121
• Ozone = 121
• Total Suspended Particulates = 127
• Carbon Monoxide = 128
• Sulfur Dioxide = 129
• Nitrogen Dioxide = 129
• Current Control Programs and Additional Controls = 130
• Mobile Source Controls = 130
• Transportation-Related Control Measures = 131
• Stationary Source Controls = 131
• Effects of Alternative Ozone Standards = 133
• Technology and Nonattainment Requirements = 134
• The Offset Program = 135
• Lowest Achievable Emission Rate Requirement = 138
• New or Modified Source Review Process = 139
• Issues Affecting Standards Attainment = 140
• Effect of Noncompliance on Standards Attainment = 141
• Unresolved Technical Issues = 141
• Summary = 142
• References = 143
• CHAPTER 5 : Prevention of Significant Deterioration Program = 147
• Introduction to the PSD Program = 147
• Rationale for the PSD Program = 147
• Evolution of the PSD Program = 148
• PSD Preconstruction Review = 150
• Applicability of PSD Review = 150
• Determination of Status as Major New or Modified Source = 151
• Pollutant and Geographic Applicability Rules = 154
• Exemptions to PSD Requirements = 155
• The Case-by-Case BACT Review = 156
• The Air Quality Analysis = 158
• Other Impact Analyses = 162
• The PSD Preconstruction Permitting Process = 163
• Analysis of the PSD Program in Meeting Its Air Quality Objectives = 165
• PSD Program Effectiveness in Reducing The Total Atmospheric Loading of Pollution = 166
• PSD Program Effects on Ambient Air Quality = 173
• Factors Involved in Increment Consumption Analysis = 173
• Visibility Protection = 174
• Causes of Visibility Impairment = 174
• PSD Increments and Visibility = 176
• The Clean Air Act's Visibility Program = 177
• Protection ofAir-Quality-Related Values and PSD Redesignation Procedures = 179
• Effects of the PSD Program on Regional Competition for Growth = 183
• Selection of Sites Among Attainment Areas = 184
• Selection of Sites Between Attainment and Nonattainment Areas = 185
• Effect of the PSD Program on Energy Development = 186
• Effect of PSD Increments on Energy Development = 186
• Effect of PSD on Planning for Energy Development = 187
• Effect of the PSD Program on Fuel Switching = 188
• Effect of Visibility Requirements on Energy Development = 188
• References = 189
• CHAPTER 6 : Mobile Source Control = 191
• Vehicle Classes and Emissions Contributions = 191
• Engine Types = 193
• Provisions and Programs for Regulating Mobile Sources = 193
• Emission Standards = 193
• Evaporative Emission Standards = 195
• Certification = 195
• Assembly Line Testing = 196
• Recall = 196
• Warranty and Tampering Provisions = 196
• Lead and Other Fuels Additives = 197
• Inspection and Maintenance = 197
• The California Emissions Control Policy = 197
• Emissions Performance of In-Use Vehicles = 197
• Factors Contributing to Poor In-Use Emissions Performance = 201
• Improper Maintenance, Misadjustments, Tampering, and Component Failures = 201
• Changes That May Influence In-Use Emission Performance = 203
• Fuel Switching = 203
• High Altitude = 203
• Actions to Improve In-Use Vehicle Emissions Performance = 206
• EPA Efforts = 206
• Inspection and Maintenance Programs = 208
• Manufacturer Efforts = 213
• Control of Vehicle Emissions at High Altitude = 214
• Effects of Statutory Standards on Fuel Economy = 215
• Effects of Changes in Automotive and Fuels Technology = 215
• Microprocessors and Emissions Control Systems = 216
• Diesel Technology = 216
• Alternative Powerplants: Short-Term Developments = 217
• Alternative Powerplants: Long-Term Developments = 217
• Alternative Fuels = 218
• More Stringent Motor Vehicle Standards = 219
• References = 220
• CHAPTER 7 : New Source Performance Standards = 223
• Operation of the NSPS Program = 224
• Revising New Source Performance Standards = 225
• Stringency of Controls Required = 226
• Summary = 227
• References = 227
• CHAPTER 8 : Enforcement Activities = 229
• Control Requirements = 229
• Methods to Determine Compliance = 230
• Agency Measures to Bring About Compliance = 232
• State and Local Enforcement Programs = 232
• Federal Enforcement Program = 233
• Summary = 235
• References = 235
• CHAPTER 9 : Atmospheric Transport = 237
• Interstate Pollution and the State Implementation Plan Process = 237
• Local Air Quality and Long-Range Transport = 237
• Control of Transport Under the Act = 238
• The Nonattainment Program = 238
• The Prevention of Significant Deterioration Program = 239
• New Source Performance Standards = 240
• Federal Motor Vehicle Control Program = 241
• Pollutants of Concern = 241
• Ozone = 241
• Fine Particles = 242
• Regional Air Quality Modelling = 244
• Acid Deposition = 246
• Visibility = 248
• Utility Contribution to Pollutant Loadings = 250
• Canadian Actions = 253
• Summary = 253
• References = 253
• PART 4 : Other Considerations = 257
• CHAPTER 1: Economic Considerations = 259
• Costs and Benefits: The National Effects = 260
• Costs of Air Pollution Control = 260
• Benefits of Air Pollution Control = 261
• Health Benefits = 261
• Nonhealth Benefits = 262
• Limitations of Cost and Benefit Estimates and Cost and Benefit Analyses = 264
• Economic Effects of Stationary and Mobile Source Controls = 265
• Effects on Regional Output, Earnings, and Employment = 266
• Mobile Source Emission Controls = 270
• Consideration of Economics in the Clean Air Act = 273
• Economic Incentive Approaches to Air Pollution Control = 276
• Emission Offsets = 276
• The Bubble Policy = 276
• Emission Banking = 277
• Transferable Emission Reduction Assessments = 279
• Emission Fees = 279
• Subsidies = 280
• References = 281
• CHAPTER 2 : Energy and Air Quality = 283
• Background = 283
• Energy Use and Air Pollution = 284
• Projected Energy Use and Emission Trends = 287
• The Effects of Specific Clean Air Act Provisions on Energy Use, Development, and Fuel Choice = 293
• The Nonattainment Program = 294
• The Prevention of Significant Deterioration Program = 294
• Energy Development and Use: Special Issues = 297
• The Potential for Coal = 297
• Conservation and Regional Air Quality = 298
• Energy Consumption and the Economy = 299
• Sulfate Transport and Acid Rain = 302
• Visibility Degradation = 303
• Carbon Dioxide = 303
• References = 304
• PART 5 : Supplemental and Dissenting Statements of the Commissioners = 307
• Supplemental Statement of the Honorable John D. Dingell = 309
• Supplemental Statement of the Honorable James T. Broyhill = 311
• Supplemental Statement of Commissioner Edwin D. Dodd = 319
• Supplemental Statement of Commissioner Jeanne Malchon Regarding Public Participation = 324
• Supplemental Statement of Commissioner Jeanne Malchon = 325
• Dissenting Statement of Commissioners Richard E. Ayres, Annemarie F. Crocetti, and John J. Sheehan = 326
• Dissenting Statement of Commissioner Annemarie F. Crocetti = 340
• Dissenting Statement of Commissioner John J. Sheehan = 341
• Statement of the Honorable Robert T. Stafford = 344
• Biographies = 347
• Commissioners = 347
• Senior Staff = 350
• Other Publications of the National Commission on Air Quality = 353