The art of thinking : a guide to critical and creative thought

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• To the Instructor = xix
• 1 Developing Your Thinking: An Overview = 1
• What Is Thinking? = 2
• Contemporary Brain Research = 3
• The Production Phase = 3
• The Judgment Phase = 4
• Good Thinking Is a Habit = 4
• Structure of This Book = 5
• Getting the Most from Your Efforts = 6
• Consider Time = 7
• Consider Place = 7
• Consider Conditions = 7
• Using Feelings to Advantage = 7
• Learning to Concentrate = 8
• Coping with Frustration = 9
• Writing to Discover Ideas = 10
• Writing for Others = 12
• Warm-up Exercises = 12
• Applications = 13
• Group Discussion Exercise = 15
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 15
• PART 1 Be Aware = 17
• 2 Establish a Foundation = 18
• Free Will Versus Determinism = 18
• What Is Truth? = 19
• What is Knowing? = 21
• Ways of Knowing = 23
• Direct Experience = 23
• Witnessing Others' Experiences = 24
• Report = 24
• The Problem of Remembering = 25
• What Are Opinions? = 26
• Expressions of Taste = 26
• Expressions of Judgment = 27
• Debating Moral Questions = 27
• The Basis of Moral Judgment = 29
• Dealing with Dilemmas = 32
• Warm-up Exercises = 32
• Applications = 32
• Group Discussion Exercise = 35
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 36
• 3 Broaden your Perspective = 37
• Becoming an Individual = 39
• Habits That Hinder Thinking = 41
• The Mine-Is-Better Habit = 41
• Face Saving = 42
• Resistance to Change = 43
• Conformity = 45
• Stereotyping = 46
• Self-deception = 47
• Overcoming Bad Habits = 48
• Warm-up Exercises = 49
• Applications = 50
• Group Discussion Exercise = 51
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 52
• 4 Sharpen your Analytical Skills = 53
• Improving Your Reading = 53
• Making Important Distinctions = 54
• Distinctions Between the Person and the Idea = 55
• Distinctions Between Matters of Taste and Matters of Judgment = 55
• Distinctions Between Fact and Interpretation = 56
• Distinctions Between Literal and Ironic Statements = 56
• Distinctions Between an Idea's Validity and the Quality of Its Expression = 57
• Distinctions Between Language and Reality = 57
• Evaluating an Argument = 58
• Step 1: Summarizing = 59
• Step 2: Evaluating = 60
• Step 3: Judging = 60
• A Sample Argument = 62
• Warm-up Exercises = 63
• Applications = 63
• Group Discussion Exercise = 70
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 71
• PART 2 Be Creative = 73
• 5 The Creative Process = 74
• Key Facts About Creativity = 74
• Characteristics of Creative People = 76
• Creative People Are Dynamic = 76
• Creative People Are Daring = 77
• Creative People Are Resourceful = 77
• Creative People Are Hardworking = 78
• Creative People Are Independent = 78
• Applying Creativity to Problems and Issues = 79
• Taking a Novel Approach = 79
• Devising or Modifying a Process or System = 79
• Inventing a New Product or Service = 80
• Finding New Uses for Existing Things = 80
• Improving Things = 81
• Inventing or Redefining a Concept = 81
• Stages in the Creative Process = 82
• The First Stage: Searching for Challenges = 82
• The Second Stage: Expressing the Problem or Issue = 82
• The Third Stage: Investigating the Problem or Issue = 83
• The Fourth Stage: Producing Ideas = 83
• Warm-up Exercises = 84
• Applications = 84
• Group Discussion Exercise = 85
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 86
• 6 Search for Challenges = 87
• The Importance of Curiosity = 87
• How Curiosity Is Lost = 89
• Regaining Your Curiosity = 90
• Six Helpful Techniques = 90
• Be Observant = 91
• Look for Imperfections = 92
• Note Your Own and Others' Dissatisfactions = 93
• Search for Causes = 93
• Be Sensitive to Implications = 94
• Recognize the Opportunity in Controversy = 95
• Warm-up Exercises = 96
• Applications = 96
• Group Discussion Exercise = 99
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 99
• 7 Express the Problem or Issue = 100
• Distinguishing Problems from Issues = 100
• Expressing Problems = 101
• Expressing Issues = 102
• When Problems Become Issues = 103
• Guidelines for Expressing Problems and Issues = 104
• Benefits of Careful Expression = 104
• It Helps You Move Beyond the Familiar and Habitual = 104
• It Keeps Your Thinking Flexible = 104
• It Opens Many Lines of Thought = 105
• A Sample Problem = 106
• A Sample Issue = 107
• Warm-up Exercises = 108
• Applications = 109
• Group Discussion Exercise = 110
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 110
• 8 Investigate the Problem or Issue = 112
• Three Sources of Information = 113
• Yourself = 114
• People Around You = 115
• Authorities = 115
• Maintain a Questioning Perspective = 116
• Conducting an Interview = 117
• Using the Library = 118
• Keeping Creativity Alive = 120
• Warm-up Exercises = 120
• Applications = 121
• Group Discussion Exercise = 124
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 124
• 9 Produce Ideas = 125
• Stimulating Your Imagination = 126
• Force Uncommon Responses = 126
• Use Free Association = 127
• Use Analogy = 127
• Look for Unusual Combinations = 127
• Visualize the Solution = 128
• Construct Pro and Con Arguments = 128
• Construct Relevant Scenarios = 129
• Aiming for Originality = 130
• Withholding Judgment = 131
• Overcoming Obstacles = 131
• Thinker's Block = 131
• Vagueness and Confusion = 132
• Inflexibility = 133
• How Insight Occurs = 133
• A Sample Problem = 134
• A Sample Issue = 136
• Warm-up Exercises = 138
• Applications = 138
• Group Discussion Exercise = 140
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 140
• PART 3 Be Critical = 141
• 10 The Role of Criticism = 142
• Why Criticism Is Necessary = 142
• Focus on Your Ideas = 143
• Overcoming Obstacles to Critical Thinking = 143
• Applying Curiosity = 144
• Avoiding Assumptions = 144
• Refining Your Solutions to Problems = 145
• A Sample Problem = 146
• Refining Your Positions on Issues = 147
• A Sample Issue = 148
• Taking Action on the Issue = 148
• Warm-up Exercises = 149
• Applications = 150
• Group Discussion Exercise = 152
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 152
• 11 Refine your Solution to the Problem = 153
• Three Steps in Refining = 153
• Step 1: Working Out the Details = 154
• Step 2: Finding Imperfections and Complications = 155
• Step 3: Making Improvements = 156
• Two Sample Problems = 157
• The First Problem = 157
• The Second Problem = 159
• Warm-up Exercises = 161
• Applications = 161
• Group Discussion Exercise = 162
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 163
• 12 Evaluate Your Argument on the Issue = 164
• Errors Affecting Validity = 164
• A Special Problem: The Hidden Premise = 166
• Evaluating Complex Arguments = 168
• Errors Affecting Truth = 169
• Either / Or Thinking = 169
• Avoiding the Issue = 170
• Overgeneralizing = 170
• Oversimplifying = 171
• Double Standard = 172
• Shifting the Burden of Proof = 172
• Irrational Appeal = 173
• Steps in Evaluating an Argument = 173
• The Case of Parents Versus Broadcasters = 174
• The Case of the Retarded Girls = 175
• Warm-up Exercises = 175
• Applications = 176
• Group Discussion Exercise = 178
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 178
• 13 Refine Your Resolution of the Issue = 180
• Step 1: Deciding What Action Should Be Taken = 180
• Step 2: Recognizing and Overcoming Difficulties = 181
• The Case of the Retarded Girls = 182
• Should Children Pledge Allegiance? = 182
• Warm-up Exercises = 184
• Applications = 184
• Group Discussion Exercise = 186
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 186
• PART 4 Communicate Your Ideas = 187
• 14 Anticipate Negative Reactions = 188
• How Common Are Negative Reactions? = 189
• Why People React Negatively = 190
• Common Negative Reactions = 191
• Anticipating Specific Reactions = 191
• The Brainstorming Technique = 192
• The Imaginary Dialogue Technique = 192
• Warm-up Exercises = 194
• Applications = 194
• Group Discussion Exercise = 197
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 197
• 15 Build a Persuasive Case = 198
• How Persuasion Is Achieved = 198
• Using Evidence Effectively = 200
• Presenting Ideas Skillfully = 200
• Respect Your Audience = 201
• Begin with the Familiar = 201
• Select the Most Appropriate Tone = 201
• Answer All Significant Objections = 202
• The Importance of Timing = 202
• A Sample Situation = 203
• Warm-up Exercises = 207
• Applications = 207
• Group Discussion Exercise = 210
• Composition or Speech Exercise = 211
• Appendix A ● A Guide to Composition = 213
• Four Important Characteristics = 213
• A Strategy for Composing = 215
• Prewritmg = 215
• Planning = 217
• Drafting = 219
• Revising = 219
• Editing = 219
• Developing a Readable Style = 220
• A Sample Analytical Paper = 221
• Appendix B ● A Guide to Formal Speaking, Conversation, and Group Discussion = 224
• Formal Speaking = 224
• Types of Speeches = 224
• Organizing Your Material = 225
• Sample Outline and Speech = 226
• Practicing the Delivery = 228
• Conversation = 229
• Speaking Well = 230
• Listening Well = 230
• Improving Your Listening Skills = 231
• Group Discussion = 232
• Appendix C ● The Fundamentals of Logic = 234
• Three Basic Principles = 234
• Formal Argument = 235
• Common Errors in Syllogisms = 235
• Undistributed Middle = 236
• Illicit Process = 236
• Affirming the Consequent = 237
• Denying the Antecedent = 237
• Converting a Conditional = 238
• Negating Antecedent and Consequent = 238
• Appendix D ● Doing the Warm-up Exercises = 239
• Seven Helpful Strategies = 239
• Sample Exercises and Responses = 240
• Exercise 1 = 241
• Exercise 2 = 241
• Appendix E ● Solutions to Sample Problems = 242
• The Three Glasses Problem = 242
• The Young Girl / Old Woman Problem = 242
• The Vase and Faces Problem = 243
• Notes = 245
• Index = 255