[보고서] 고대한어의 화제에 대한 연구

국문 초록 (Abstract)

▣ 국문초록 ·······································································································ⅰ
▣ 목차 ···············································································································ⅴ
1.머리말 ···················································································································1
1.1硏究의 목적 ·································································································1
1.2硏究의 방법 ·································································································7
1.3漢語의 時代區分과 古代漢語································································10
2.話題의 개념 ······································································································18
2.1話題의 개념 ································································································18
2.1.1話題에 대한 先行硏究·····································································18
2.1.2話題의 정의 ······················································································25
2.1.3정보구조에서의 話題와 焦點··························································28
2.2主語와 話題································································································41
2.2.1主語와 話題······················································································41
2.2.2古代漢語의 主語와 話題··································································52
3.古代漢語의 화제 표지 ·················································································61
3.1화제 표지의 類型과 機能·······································································61
3.1.1休止와 화제 표지 ·············································································61
3.1.2화제 표지의 類型과 機能································································63
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3.2古代漢語의 화제 표지 ·············································································66
3.2.1古代漢語화제 표지의 용법 ····························································66
3.2.2古代漢語화제 표지의 분포 ····························································78
3.3古代漢語의 조건 표지와 화제 표지 ····················································82
3.3.1조건 표지와 화제 표지 ···································································83
3.3.2‘조건’과 ‘대하여성’··········································································88
3.3.3조건의 文法化와 古代漢語의 화제 표지 ·······································89
4.古代漢語의 話題化와 代用語····································································96
4.1古代漢語의 話題化···················································································96
4.1.1話題化의 定義···················································································96
4.1.2古代漢語의 話題化···········································································98
4.2古代漢語의 話題化와 代用語·······························································105
4.2.1주어의 話題化와 代用語································································107
4.2.2목적어의 話題化와 代用語····························································116
4.2.3수식어의 話題化와 代用語····························································124
4.2.4‘以’의 목적어 前置와 話題化·······················································127
4.3代用語‘是’의 文法化와 漢語繫辭의 출현 ·····································133
4.3.1繫辭‘是’의 起源에 대한 두 가지 해석 ······································134
4.3.2代用語‘是’의 文法化과정 ···························································137
4.3.3漢語繫辭‘是’의 출현 ···································································143
5.古代漢語話題의 特性과 言語類型·······················································149
5.1古代漢語話題의 特性···········································································149
5.1.1古代漢語話題의 형태․통사적 특성 ···········································149
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5.1.2古代漢語話題의 담화․화용적 특성 ···········································155
5.2古代漢語의 言語類型·············································································159
5.2.1話題중심 언어의 조건 ··································································159
5.2.2話題중심 언어로서의 古代漢語··················································163
6.結論···················································································································169
▣ 참고문헌 ·····································································································173
▣ 中文提要·····································································································181

국문 초록 (Abstract)

본고는 春秋 말엽부터 戰國時代를 거쳐 기원전 221년 秦에 의해 통일 제국이 성립할 때까지 대략 350년 동안 사용되었던 漢語인 古代漢語를 분석 대상으로 삼아, 話題標識(topic marker)와 話題化(topicalization)를 중심으로 古代漢語의 話題(topic)를 言語類型論의 관점에서 설명하는 것을 목적으로 하였다.

전통적인 文法觀에서는 문장을 主語와 述語의 두 부분으로 구성되는 것으로 간주하고, 주어와 술어의 이분법을 기초로 문법을 기술하였다. 단일한 기준을 적용하여 主語와 述語를 정의하는 일이 현실적으로 거의 불가능함에도 불구하고 이러한 문법관은 최근까지 크게 도전 받지 않았다. 1970년대 이후로 구조주의, 기능주의, 형식주의 등 다양한 언어학적 배경을 가진 동서양의 학자들에 의해 여러 관점에서 화제에 대한 분석이 시도되고, 漢語를 비롯한 “話題 중심의 언어”라고 명명된 언어들에서 主語와 述語라는 개념만으로는 설명할 수 없는 문법 현상들이 광범위하게 존재한다는 사실이 밝혀지면서 이러한 전통적인 文法觀은 심각한 도전에 직면하였고, 이에 대한 代案으로 話題와 論評을 근간으로 하는 새로운 문법 체계를 기술하려는 노력이 현재까지 계속되고 있다.

본고에서는 이전의 연구 성과에 대한 비판적 고찰을 통해 화제를 “문장 또는 담화에서 나머지 부분의 論評 대상으로 선택되어 文頭에 위치하는 한 성분”으로, 논평은 “話題에 대하여 진술하는 나머지 부분”으로 각각 정의하고, 現代漢語와 마찬가지로 古代漢語에서도 화제는 주어, 술어, 목적어 등과 동일한 통사적 지위를 갖는 성분임을 서술하였다. 따라서 漢語의 기본 어순은 SVO(주어-동사-목적어)가 아니라 TSVO(화제-주어-동사-목적어)가 된다. 또 현재까지 제안된 화제의 다양한 특성 가운데 ‘대하여성’(aboutness)을 화제의 본질적인 속성으로 규정하고, ‘한정성’ 등 나머지 특성은 ‘대하여성’에 수반되는 附隨的인 속성으로 규정하였다.

古代漢語 話題는 형태․통사적으로 다음과 같은 특성을 갖는다. 첫째, 古代漢語 화제는 다양한 화제 표지의 활발한 쓰임을 그 한 특징으로 한다. 둘째, 古代漢語의 화제의 대부분은 화제화로 설명이 가능하며, 話題化와 관련된 代用語의 쓰임이 활발하다. 셋째, 古代漢語에서는 現代漢語와 달리 多重 화제 구조가 매우 드물다. 또 古代漢語 話題는 담화․화용적으로 다음과 같은 특성을 갖는다. 첫째, 古代漢語에는 對照的 話題가 자주 등장한다. 둘째, 古代漢語의 화제 구조에서는 새 정보도 話題가 될 수 있다. 이상과 같은 古代漢語 화제의 특성은 공통적으로 古代漢語의 話題가 화제 범주의 문법화 과정의 초기 단계에 속한다는 사실을 보여준다.

古代漢語는 화제 중심의 언어에서 공통적으로 발견되는 다음과 같은 유형적 특징을 갖는다. 첫째, 주요 술어 앞 文頭의 위치에 두 개(또는 그 이상)의 Np 성분이 출현하는 ‘二重主語文’이라고 불리는 문장이 자주 사용된다. 둘째, 形態的인 관점에서 볼 때 주어와 관계되는 格(case) 표지가 사용되지 않고, 화제 표지가 사용된다. 셋째, 화제가 先行詞가 되어 後行하는 논평의 代用語 또는 空範疇와 共指示 관계를 이루고, 이런 관계가 반복적으로 출현하여 話題 連鎖를 이룬다. 넷째, 主語가 필요하지 않을 경우 영어의 ‘it’과 같은 假主語를 사용하여 주어를 대신 표시하지 않는다. 다섯째, 被動文이 드물게 사용되며 간혹 사용되더라도 부수적인 의미를 수반한다. 이상과 같은 유형적 특징들은 古代漢語의 話題가 비록 話題 文法化에서 現代漢語에 비해 상대적으로 초기 단계에 속하는 것은 사실이지만, 古代漢語가 화제 중심의 언어라는 사실은 異論의 여지가 없음을 설명해준다.

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

傳統的語法觀認爲一个句子能分爲主語與謂語的兩个部分, 幷以主語與謂語的二分法爲基礎來描述語法｡雖然運用單一的標準給主語與謂語下定義幾乎不可能,但是這種語法觀却在很長時間內被學術界廣泛接受, 直到近來隨着硏究人員逐漸發現包括漢語在內的所謂‘話題優先語言’(topic prominent language)裏存在着很多主語與述語槪念解決不了的問題,這種傳統的語法觀才受到了强有力的挑戰｡語言學者經過一系列的硏究后逐
步認爲以話題(topic)與述題(comment)爲基礎的新的語法觀就是解決這些問題的對策｡
本稿從春秋末期到公元前221年秦帝國的古代漢語爲分析對象,從語言類型學的角度說明以話題標記與話題化爲中心的古代漢語話題｡硏究話題問題之所以重要,是因爲話題與一種語言的基本結構,基本語序引起的一系列重要問題有關｡從20世紀70年代開始, 話題成爲語言學界關注的焦点, 結構主義學派、功能主義學派、形式主義學派的學者從不同的語言學背景出發,試圖對話題進行分析｡但是目前爲止話題還不是一个十分明確
的槪念｡本稿認爲話題是“放在一个句子或者篇章結構之首,充當剩下成分的說明對象的這樣一種成分”, 述題是“說明話題的剩下成分”｡古代漢語的話題跟現代漢語的話題一樣,是一个基本成分而不是附加成分｡話題跟主語、謂語、賓語等語法成分一樣,具有統辭地位,所以古代漢語基本語序幷不是SVO而應該是TSVO｡ 我們認爲‘關于性’(aboutness)就是話題的本質屬性,‘有定性’(definiteness)、‘已知信息’(old information)等其他交
談、語用特性是‘關于性’所引發的附帶屬性｡話題(topic)與焦點(focus)是構成信息結構(informationstructure)的兩个核心因素,所以如何理解話題在信息結構話中的地位是硏究話題時不可缺少的重要的一部分｡
古代漢語話題以頻繁使用各種各樣的話題標記(topicmarker)爲一个形態特徵｡不儘是‘也、者、則’等后置話題標記,而且‘夫、若’等前置話題標記也可以起到使聽話者的注意力集中到話題上的作用｡這些后置話題標記與前置話題標記的互相配合,組成了所謂的話題框架,比如,“…也者、…也則、若夫…、夫…則、夫…者、夫…也、夫…也者、若…則、若…者、若夫…則”等｡除了語氣助詞‘也’以外,古代漢語的其他話題標記是具有固有的語法功能的助詞,它們是通過某種語法手段而成爲話題標記的｡古代漢語話題標記的這種特徵是古代漢語區別于其他話題優先語言及現代漢語的固有特徵｡ “也、者、則”等古代漢語話題標記的産成跟‘條件’(conditional)範疇的語法化有密切關係,話題範疇與條件範疇的這種相關性在各種語言中是普遍的｡
古代漢語的話題化(topicalization)是順次運用[移位]、[復指]、[音韻縮約]等規則的一部或者全部的過程｡古代漢語中頻繁使用與話題化過程有關的復指代詞,復指代詞是復指移動在句首的話題化成分｡復指主語成分的代詞是‘是’,復指賓語成分的代詞是‘之’或空語類(empty category), 復指限定成分的代詞是‘其’, 復指‘於’介詞句成分的合音詞是‘焉’｡ 公元前5世紀開始,復指主語成分的代詞‘是’,通過1000年左右的漫長語法化過程, 變成漢語唯一的判斷詞(copula)｡ 我們可以以是否注重話題[±話題優先]與是否注重主語[±主語優先]兩對特徵而建立一種語言類型學｡古代漢語與其他話題優先語言一樣,也擁有如下幾个語言類型學特徵:
第一,古代漢語經常使用兩个(或者更多)Np成分在句首的所謂的‘主謂謂語句’｡
第二,在形態上,古代漢語不是優先標記跟主語有關的格(case),就是優先標記話題｡
第三,話題做爲先行詞而與后邊的述題的復指代詞或者空語類組成共起關係,這種關係反復出現而造成話題連鎖(topicchain)｡
第四,如果不需要主語時,古代漢語無須采用類似英語的‘it’之類形式主語以滿足主語必須出現的要求｡
第五,古代漢語中很少使用有明確形式表志的被動句,要强調賓語時只需把句中的賓語改作話題,動詞不必用被動語態｡如果使用被動句時有明顯的“遭受、不如意”之類的附帶意義｡
這樣的形態,句法特徵在其它主語優先語言中無法發見的｡根據以古代漢語所顯示的上述幾个類型學的特徵,我們確定,古代漢語雖然屬于整个話題語法化的早期階段,但豪無疑問是屬于一種話題優先語言｡