Methods of research : educational, psychological, sociological

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• PREFACE = ⅴ
• 1. RESEARCH AS A WAY OF PROGRESS = 1
• Our Time is One of Rapid Progress = 1
• The Rate of Progress Is Still Accelerating = 3
• Increased Amounts of Research Make Progress Possible = 4
• Research Can Expand Indefinitely = 6
• Do We Want Research to Expand? = 6
• Science Extends the Role of Intelligence = 8
• The Purpose of Research Is to Serve Man = 9
• Research Was Bom Out of Man's Problems = 10
• Man's Major Problems Demand Research = 12
• The Goal of Research Is the Good Life = 14
• Research Has Many Values for Man = 16
• A Science Philosophy = 18
• Responsibility Rests on Social Science = 19
• Social Science Can Aid Man in Determining His Course = 21
• Social Science and Religion Are Complementary = 25
• International Relations Present Endless Problems for Research = 26
• Concluding Statement = 27
• 2. FORMULATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROBLEM ; RESEARCH PROGRAMS AND NEEDS = 33
• Recognition of Problems = 33
• Numerous Problems in the Social Sciences = 33
• Problem Awareness = 34
• Sources of Problems = 38
• Specialization = 38
• Instructional Program Pursued = 39
• Program of Reading = 41
• Analysis of an Area of Knowledge = 45
• Consideration of Existing Practices and Needs = 46
• Repetition or Extension of Investigations = 47
• "Offshoots" of Studies under Way = 48
• Criteria for Selection of the Problem = 49
• Novelty and Avoidan$$\acute c$$e of Unnecessary Duplication = 50
• Importance for the Field Represented and Implementation = 54
• Interest, Intellectual Curiosity, and Drive = 56
• Training and Personal Qualifications = 58
• Availability of Data and Method = 62
• Special Equipment and Working Conditions = 63
• Sponsorship and Administrative Co$$ddot o$$peration = 66
• Costs and Returns = 67
• Hazards, Penalties, and Handicaps = 68
• Time Factor = 71
• Statement of the Problem = 74
• Thesis Topic Compared with Statement of the Problem = 74
• Broad Areas of Many Problems = 74
• Restricting an Overly Broad Topic = 75
• Broadening a Too Restricted or Excessively Localized Topic = 76
• Unscientific, Hortatory, Argumentative, or Raw-Data Topics = 76
• Topics with Reasonable Restriction and Objective Approach = 77
• Ways to State the Problem = 79
• Definition of the Problem = 81
• Ways to Define the Problem = 81
• Analysis of the Problem into Its Constituent Elements = 83
• Limits or Scope of the Investigation = 84
• Orientation and Related Literature = 84
• Sources of Data and Method = 86
• Need for the Study = 88
• Terminology = 89
• Initial Assumptions = 89
• The Working Hypothesis = 90
• Definition and Function of the Hypothesis = 90
• Examples of Hypotheses = 91
• Sources of Hypotheses = 94
• Testing of Hypotheses = 95
• A Co$$\ddot o$$rdinated Research Program: Research Needs = 98
• Our Human Resources = 99
• How Much for Research? = 99
• Co$$\ddot o$$brdination of Research = 100
• Concluding Statement = 101
• 3. SURVEY OF RELATED LITERATURE AND LIBRARY TECHNIQUE = 133
• Educational Guides = 134
• Comprehensive or General Guides = 134
• Guides to Periodicals and Serials = 139
• Guides to Books and Monographs = 140
• Guides to Graduate Theses = 141
• Guides to Special Educational Areas and Problems = 143
• Continuing or Serial Bibliographies and Summaries in Limited Areas of Education = 143
• Extensive Individual Bibliographies and Summaries in Limited Areas of Education = 144
• Biographical, Institutional, and Statistical Directories and Handbooks in Education = 144
• Psychological Guides = 145
• Comprehensive Guides in Psychology = 145
• Psychological Journals = 147
• Books, Monographs, and Theses in Psychology = 147
• Illustrative Summaries and Bibliographies in Limited Areas of Psy-chology = 147
• Biographical Directories in Psychology = 148
• Social-Science Guides = 148
• Comprehensive Guides = 148
• Periodical Guides in the Social Sciences = 149
• Guides to Book, Monographs, and Theses in the Social Sciences = 150
• Guides to Special Areas and Problems Of the Social Sciences = 150
• Social-Science Directories and Yearbooks = 151
• Trends in Library Services = 152
• Concluding Statement = 153
• 4. THE HISTORICAL METHOD = 170
• Definition and Scope of History = 170
• Definition and Area Of History = 170
• History as Science, Philosophy, Art = 171
• Value and Use of History = 171
• Functional History Of Education and Psychology = 174
• Historical Research in Other Social and Scientific Areas = 175
• Collection of Data = 177
• Delimitation of the Problem = 178
• Historical Sources = 178
• Sources in History = 179
• Historical Source, in Education = 181
• Social Research Sources = 183
• Primary and Secondary Sources = 184
• Guides to Historical Materials = 187
• Note-taking and Note Systems = 187
• Criticism of Data = 187
• External Criticism = 188
• Problems Of External Criticism (Authenticity) = 189
• Use of Auxiliary Sciences = 191
• Forgeries and Hoaxes = 192
• Inventions and Distortions = 194
• Authorship and Time = 195
• Borrowings = 197
• Other Example, of External Criticism = 198
• Internal Criticism = 198
• Principles and Problems of Internal Criticism (Credibility) = 198
• Literal Meaning nd Real Meaning of Statement = 200
• Competence of the Observer = 201
• Tests of Truthfulness and Honesty = 203
• Other Examples of Internal Criticism = 209
• The Writing of History = 209
• Documentation = 210
• Selection and Organization Of Materials = 210
• Chronological versus Thematic Organization = 210
• Trends in Historiogaphy: Philosophies and Schools of Historical Interpretation = 213
• General Philosophies of History = 214
• Specific Schools of Historical Interpretation = 215
• Training for Interpreting and Writing the New History = 217
• Special Problems of Historical Writing and Interpretation = 219
• Identification of the Problem = 219
• Inductive Reasoning and Use of Hypotheses = 220
• Causation = 221
• Historical Perspective = 223
• Thesis or Principle of Synthesis = 224
• Literary Aspects of Historical Writing = 225
• Illustrations of the Historical Method = 233
• History of Education = 233
• General Field of Educational History = 233
• Legal Research in Education = 234
• Bibliographical and Summarizing Studies = 236
• History of Psychology = 237
• Historical Sociology = 239
• Concluding and Summary Statement = 241
• 5. THE DESCRIPTIVE METHOD:GENERAL DESCRIPTION = 255
• Introduction = 255
• Nature and Uses of Descriptive Studies = 256
• Comment on Terminology = 259
• Plan of Presentation = 261
• General Description as a Form of Research = 262
• The Role of Non-Quantitative Data = 263
• Examples of Non-Quantitative Description = 264
• Characteristics of Non-Quantitative Research = 268
• Auxiliary Forms of Reporting = 271
• Problems in Descriptive Writing = 273
• Analytical Description = 275
• 5. (Continued) THE DESCRIPTIVE METHOD: ANALYSIS = 277
• Analytical Description = 277
• Introduction: Meaning of Analysis = 277
• The Role of Analysis = 280
• The Scope of Analysis = 281
• Nature of Analysis = 282
• Study of Groups versus Study of Single Cases = 288
• Varieties of Analysis = 298
• Ⅰ. General Aspects (in Analysis) = 302
• Aspects Vary with One's Interests and Interpretation = 303
• Aspects Are Selected in the Light of One's Purpose = 306
• Aspects Chosen for Study Reflect Themselves in One's Plans for Gathering Data = 309
• The Breadth of the Aspects Chosen May Be Adapted According to Need = 310
• Large Aspects Need to Be Made Specific = 312
• Factor Analysis Is Sometimes Employed to Avoid Duplication in Aspects = 316
• Observer Interpretation of Aspects May Enter Different Studies at Different Points = 318
• Aspects May Emerge as a Product of Study = 322
• Further Comments Relative to the Nature of Aspects = 326
• Ⅱ. Components (in Analysis) = 331
• Introduction = 331
• Analysis of Physical Things into Components Is Primarily the Responsibility of Other Disciplines = 334
• Analysis Is Frequently Useful to Determine the Component Elements of Concepts and Activities = 335
• Job Analysis and Description Portray Positions in Terms of Their Components = 341
• More Than One Type of Components Is Involved in a Complete Analysis = 348
• Concepts Often Call for Analysis and Division in Preparation for Their Study = 353
• For Purposes of Constructing Measuring Instruments It Is Often Necessary to Ascertain the Component Elements of the Concept to Be Represented = 355
• Factor Analysis Is a Technique Which May Be of Aid in Deciding upon Components of a Trait = 361
• Comments on Factor Analysis as a Technique for Deriving Components of a General Concept = 364
• Given Amounts of Space and Time May Be Divided into Component Segments in Terms of Observed Characteristics = 375
• There Are Many Different Levels of Components ; Each Level May Be of Interest = 380
• Concluding Comment: Analysis into Components Results in Units Which Fit Together in Various Ways = 383
• Ⅲ. Form, Organization, and Structure (in Analysis) = 384
• Can Form and Relationships Be Elementary? = 388
• Do Form and Relationships Exist Only in Man's Mind? = 390
• Are Form and Relationships Sufficiently Elementary to Serve as Units in Analysis? = 395
• Form = 398
• Pattern and Organization = 404
• Structure = 415
• 1. Physical Structure = 418
• 2. Physiological Structure = 421
• 3. Social Stmcture = 429
• 4. Conceptual and Language Structure = 434
• 5. Esthetic Structure = 437
• Ⅳ. Dynamics ; Forces and Systems (in Analysis) = 438
• 1. Force = 439
• International Relations = 455
• 2. Dynamic Systems = 456
• Personality = 460
• Self-Regulation = 467
• Unstructured Dynamic Systems = 472
• 3. Extra-Personal Factors = 478
• Basic Conditioning Factors = 478
• Current Influences ; Choice = 481
• Sociology of Knowledge = 485
• Functional Irregularities = 486
• 5. (Continued) THE DESCRIPTIVE METHOD: CLASSIFICATION = 493
• Classification in Descriptive Research = 493
• Classification Underlies All Science = 494
• Classification Calls for Class Concepts = 494
• Classification is Partly Imposed = 496
• Classes Are Created for Utility = 499
• Practical Consequences of These Perspectives = 502
• Classification is Potentially Extensive = 502
• How Classification Is Used in Research = 505
• Providing Codified Data = 507
• Forming Useful Classes According to Kind = 511
• Affording Logical Order and System = 517
• Developing Meaning in Class Concepts = 524
• Transition Note = 529
• Creating Cases Through Delimitation = 530
• Standardizing the Observations Which Describe = 536
• Selecting and Categorizing Scale Indicators = 541
• Concluding Statement = 547
• 6. ORGANIZED FORMS Of DESCRIPTIVE-SURVEY AND NORMATIVE RESEARCH: ILLUSTRATIVE SURVEYS AND PROCEDURES IN DATA-GATHERING = 548
• General Nature of Descriptive, Survey, Normative, and Status Studies = 548
• Introduction = 548
• Cross-Section Surveys or Status Studies in Relation to Historical Perspective = 549
• Trends as the Dynamic Aspects of Status = 551
• Relation of Descriptive-Survey Studies to Practical Problems and Needs = 552
• Relation of Survey Studies to Other Techniques = 554
• Descriptive-Survey Studies as Research = 556
• Types of Descriptive-Survey Research = 558
• The Social-Survey Movement = 559
• Pioneer Studies = 560
• Later Developments in England = 561
• Beginnings in America = 561
• Later Developments in the United States = 562
• Trends in the Social-Survey Movement = 562
• Community Surveys and Studies = 564
• Purpose and Definition = 564
• Scope of the Community Survey = 565
• Study of Urban Areas = 565
• Community Schools = 566
• Self-Surveys = 566
• The School-Survey Movement = 567
• Early Surveys = 567
• Early Trends = 568
• Types of School Surveys = 569
• Implementation and Outcomes of School Surveys = 570
• Trends, Next Steps, and Critique of Survey Studies = 572
• Illustrative Descriptive-Survey and Normative Studies = 576
• Descriptive and Deliberative Surveys and Inquiries Relating to Institutions and Agencies = 577
• Membership Analysis oi Surveys of Organizations and Groups = 580
• Follow-up Studies = 582
• Evaluative Surveys of Trends and Status = 583
• General Procedures and Problems of Gathering Descriptive-Survey Data = 583
• Co$$\ddot o$$peration in Gathering Statistical Data = 584
• Planning for Data-Gathering = 584
• Basic Enumerative and Descriptive Records = 585
• Report Forms for Gathering Data = 586
• Aggregative or Report Statistics = 587
• Personnel and Standards for Statistical Reporting and Interpretation = 589
• Using Documentary Sources and Published Data = 590
• Relation of History and Statistics = 590
• Major Types of Documentary Sources = 591
• Insight in Questioning Data = 592
• Illustrations of Using and Evaluating Data = 593
• Checking and Copying from Documentary Sources = 594
• Selected Sources of Current Statistical Data = 595
• Sampling in Descriptive-Survey Studies = 596
• Sampling and Statistical Inference = 597
• Illustrations of Early Sampling = 598
• Values of Sampling = 599
• Difficulties in Sampling = 599
• Planning a Sampling Survey = 599
• Modern Examples of Sampling = 599
• Methods of Selecting the Sample = 601
• Limitations of Sampling = 602
• 6. (Continued) ORGANIZED FORMS OF DESCRIPTIVE-SURVEY AND NORMATIVE RESEARCH: QUESTIONNAIRE AND INTERVIE9V TECHNIQUES = 604
• Questionnaire Inquiries and Techniques = 604
• Introduction = 604
• Uses and Applications of the Questionnaire = 606
• Psychology of the Respondent = 607
• Choice of Questionnaire in Comparison with Other Techniques = 609
• Does the Recipient Have the Information, and Is He Free and Willing to Respond? = 610
• Stages and Administrative Aspects of Questionnaire Surveys = 611
• Larger Forms of the Questionnaire = 612
• Questionnaire Construction = 614
• Criteria for Constructing Questionnaires = 615
• Directions for Answering Questions = 616
• Varied Purposes of Questions = 617
• Questions and Categories = 618
• Questions in Relation to Responses = 619
• Ambiguous Questions and Responses = 620
• Placement of Detailed Lists = 621
• Tryout or Pretesting = 622
• Evidence of Questionnaire Validity = 623
• Follow-up = 625
• Percentage of Returns and Bias = 626
• Editing Returns = 628
• Tabulating and Summarizing Returns = 629
• Interpreting Questionnaire Returns = 632
• The Literature on Questionnaire Inquiries = 634
• Interview Techniques and Studies = 635
• Nature and Value of the Interview = 637
• Applications of the Interview Technique = 638
• Types of Interviews = 640
• The Focused or Depth Interview = 641
• Preparation for the Interview = 643
• Further Details of Interview Technique = 644
• 6. (Continued) ORGANIZED FORMS OF DESCRIPTIVE-SURVEY AND NORMATIVE RESEARCH: OBSERVATIONAL, SMALL-GROUP, CONTENT-ANALYSIS, AND APPRAISAL TECHNIQUES = 646
• Observational Studies and Techniques = 646
• Factors Stimulating Observation as a Research Approach = 648
• Characteristics of Observation for Research Purposes = 648
• Non-Participant and Participant Observation = 649
• Uses and Applications of Observation = 650
• Observation Compared with Experimental and Laboratory Studies = 652
• Special Forms of Recording = 653
• Administrative Aspects of Observational Studies = 656
• Units of Behavior and Scope of Observation = 657
• Arranging for the Record = 659
• Training for Observation and Reliability = 659
• Observation and Interpretation = 661
• Small-Group Study or Group-Behavior Analysis = 663
• Characteristics of Small-Group Study = 664
• The Research Literature of Small-Group Study = 664
• Quantitative (Content) Analysis of Documentary Materials = 665
• Earlier Approaches to Textbook Analysis = 665
• Earlier Analyses of Larger Bodies of Literature = 666
• Earlier Analyses of Assembled Specimens (Counts of Words, Errors, and Items in Reports) = 667
• Interpretation of Studies of Frequency = 669
• Theory and Technique of Content Analysis = 670
• Other Illustrations of Textbook and Content Analysis = 673
• Survey-Appraisal Procedures and Index Numbers = 677
• Appraisal in Relation to Subjectivity = 677
• Rating of Specimens or Items = 680
• Ranking of Human Beings = 680
• Comparison With Scaled Specimons = 680
• Check Lists = 681
• Rating Scales = 681
• Score Cards = 682
• Basic Theory and Interpretation of Appraisal instruments = 683
• Appraisal of Institutions = 684
• Index Numbers and Objectivity = 685
• Uses of Index Numbers = 685
• Theory and Interpretation of Index Numbers = 686
• The Literature of Appraisal Techniques = 687
• Concluding Statement = 687
• 7. THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD = 689
• Historical Background = 689
• Varying Philosophies of Causation = 691
• The Nature of an Experiment = 697
• The Concept of the Single Variable = 699
• Experimentation in Relation to Other Procedures = 701
• Laboratory Experimentation = 702
• Group Techniques of Experimentation = 704
• One-Group Technique = 704
• Parallel-Group Technique = 705
• Rotation-Group Technique = 706
• Equating of Groups = 708
• Pairing of Subjects = 708
• Causal-Comparative Studies in Relation to Experimentation = 710
• Illustrative Classifications of Experimental Design = 712
• Logic = 712
• Sociology = 712
• Psychology = 712
• Statistics of Experimcntal Design = 713
• The Literature of Experimentation = 715
• Evaluation of the Experimental Method = 716
• Experimentation and the Classroom Teacher = 719
• Concluding Statement-The Outlook = 720
• 8. CASE AND CLINICAL STUDIES = 726
• Characteristics, Applications, and Sequence = 726
• Definition of Case Study = 726
• Contribution of Case Study = 730
• Relation of Case Study to Other Research Procedures = 730
• Unity and Sequence = 731
• Characteristics and Skills of Satisfactory Case Study and Case Work = 731
• The Cycle of Case Study and Case Work = 732
• Step 1: Status of the Situation or Unit of Attention = 733
• Step 2: Collection of Data, Examination, and History = 735
• Examination and History Outlines = 735
• Personal Documents = 737
• The Life History = 738
• Autobiography, Biography, and Diaries = 739
• Step 3: Diagnosis and Identification of Causal Factors = 741
• Functional Relationships of Diagnosis = 741
• Criteria for Successful Diagnosis = 742
• Techniques of Diagnosis = 743
• Causation = 744
• Illustrative Cases, Diagnosis, and Interpretation = 745
• Step 4: Adjustment, Treatment, and Therapy = 746
• Functional Relationship Between Diagnosis and Adjustment = 746
• Preventive Measures = 747
• Tentative Character of Adjustment Programs = 748
• Objectives = 749
• Self-Help and Self-Activity = 750
• Attitudes = 750
• Individual Differences = 751
• Co$$\ddot o$$peration and Co$$\ddot o$$peration in Treatment = 753
• Illustrative Cases of Treatment and References = 754
• Step 5: Follow-up Program = 755
• Case Recording = 756
• Purposes and Attributes = 756
• Accuracy and Objectivity = 757
• Conciseness, Ease of Reference, and Uniformity = 757
• Recording of Interviews = 758
• The Narrative and Summaries = 758
• Letters and Reports = 760
• Ethics of Recording = 760
• Cumulative and Anecdotal Records = 762
• Uses of Cumulative Records = 762
• Format and Structure of Cumulative Records = 763
• Characteristics of Anecdotal Records = 764
• Uses of Anecdotal Records = 765
• Steps in Anecdotal-Record Planning = 765
• Precautions and Problems in the Preparation and Use of Anecdotes = 766
• Illustrative Case Histories = 767
• Limitations and Resources of Case Study = 771
• Limitations of Case Study = 771
• Resources for Case Study and Case Work = 774
• Concluding Statement = 774
• 9. GENETIC, DEVELOPMENTAL, AND GROWTH STUDIES = 800
• Introduction = 800
• Purposes and Problems of Genetic Research = 801
• Purposes of Genetic Research = 801
• Problems of Genetic Research = 802
• Cross-Section versus Longitudinal Approach = 803
• Cross-Section Technique = 803
• Longitudinal Technique = 804
• Relations Between the Genetic Approach and Other Research Materials and Methods = 806
• Sources of Genetic Data = 806
• Historical and Biographical Materials = 807
• Survey Instmments = 808
• Experimental Techniques = 809
• Case Studies = 809
• Statistical Techniques = 810
• Social Change = 810
• Adaptation of Techniques to Different Aspects, and Stages of Development = 810
• Analysis and Interpretation of Genetic Data = 812
• Principles of Child Development = 812
• Initiation or Beginning of Growth = 813
• Augmentation versus Qualitative Change = 813
• Rate of Growth in Terms of Trends, Patterns, Irregularities, and Fluctuations = 814
• Levels of Maturity in Terms of Configuration of Behavior and Integrated Growth = 815
• Individuality of Growth Careers = 816
• Limits of Growth = 816
• Maturity, Old Age, and Deterioration = 816
• Developmental Diagnosis and Causation = 818
• Developmental Prognosis and Prediction = 819
• Completed Genetic Studies and Needed Research = 820
• Summaries of Genetic Research = 820
• Needed Research = 821
• Concluding Statement = 821
• 10. THE REPORTING AND IMPLEMENTING OF RESEARCH = 832
• Reporting as the Communicatory Stage in Research = 832
• Purposes of Style Manuals = 833
• General Requirements as to Form = 834
• Typing = 834
• Pagination = 834
• Syllabification, Spelling, Numerals, and Verb Tense = 834
• Outlining and Briefing = 835
• Headings = 835
• Lists of Items = 836
• Note-Taking = 836
• Value = 836
• Suggestions = 836
• Cautions = 837
• Types of Notes = 838
• Documentation and Bibliographies = 839
• Quotations = 840
• Direct Quotations = 840
• Indirect Quotations = 840
• Authorization to Quote = 841
• Format = 841
• Major Divisions of the Report = 842
• Title and Title Page = 842
• Acknowledgment = 844
• Table of Contents = 844
• Dealing with Tables and Figures = 845
• Formulation and Definition of the Problem = 848
• Presentation of Evidence = 850
• Summary and Conclusions = 851
• Bibliography = 852
• Appendix = 852
• Index = 853
• Field Reports and Special Theses = 853
• The Field Project = 860
• Analysis of the Literature = 860
• A Textbook or Course of Study = 861
• Development and Evaluation of a Plan = 862
• Creative Work = 862
• Consistency in Footnote,and Bibliographical Style = 864
• Footnote Usage = 865
• Books Not Identified with a Series = 866
• Publications Identified with a Series = 868
• Journals = 870
• Newspapers = 871
• Unpublished Material = 871
• Bibliographical Usage = 873
• Style and Readability of the Report = 874
• Diction and Phraseology = 875
• Style in Technical and Research Reporting = 876
• Principles of Readability = 878
• Evaluation, implementation, and Action Programs = 880
• Evaluation of Research = 880
• Implementation of Findings = 880
• Action Programs = 883
• Implementation Through Publication = 886
• Concluding Statement = 887
• INDEX = 897