Energy from the ocean : report

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• Letter of transmittal = ⅲ
• Letter of submittal = ⅴ
• Letter requesting study = ⅶ
• Conclusions = 3
• Introduction = 5
• Summary = 9
• RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY FROM THE OCEAN
• 1. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion(OTEC) = 25
• Resource potential = 25
• Regions of potential OTEC utilization = 26
• History of the technology and basic technological concepts = 31
• Recent design concepts = 36
• Open-cycle plants = 36
• Closed-cycle plants = 39
• Research and development = 45
• System components and related problems in the marine environment = 45
• Heat exchangers = 45
• Turbines = 48
• Instrumentation and controls = 49
• Pumps for various OTEC applications = 49
• Choice of materials = 50
• Materials corrosion problems and biofouling of components and subsystems(avoidance and corrective measures) = 50
• Anchoring, mooring, and dynamic positioning = 52
• Platform construction system, deployment, and methodology for power plant maintenance and overhaul = 53
• Legal, political, and institutional considerations = 54
• International jurisdictional issues = 54
• Spatial and emerging use conflicts = 54
• Regulatory and liability aspects = 54
• Domestic and international environmental aspects = 55
• Financing = 55
• Resource, ecological, and environmental research = 56
• Resource assessments = 56
• Ecological and environmental impacts = 56
• Energy conversion and delivery = 57
• Potential byproducts of large floating OTEC plants = 58
• Mariculture = 58
• Alumina reduction to aluminum = 58
• Hydrogen = 59
• Use of ammonia as a hydrogen carrier = 59
• Other products and ocean energy industrial complexes = 59
• Costs and development = 60
• Costs = 61
• Additional considerations related to costs = 63
• Legal constraints = 64
• Policy constraints = 64
• Technical constraints = 65
• Financial constraints = 65
• Legal incentives = 66
• Policy incentives = 66
• Technical incentives = 66
• Financial incentives = 66
• Development of timetables for ocean thermal powerplants = 66
• Near-term(-1985) = 71
• Mid-term(-2000) = 71
• Long-term(beyond 2000) = 71
• Recapitulation and conclusions = 76
• 2. Energy from ocean waves = 81
• Introduction = 81
• Wave-energy development programs = 83
• Wave characteristics = 85
• Estimation of wave energy = 89
• Resource potential for energy from waves = 90
• World estimates = 90
• North American estimates = 94
• United Kingdom estimates = 98
• Estimates for other areas = 101
• Limitations on the wave energy resource = 102
• Technology of wave-energy extraction = 103
• Schemes operated by mass transport from breaking waves = 106
• The wave pump = 109
• Pneumatic conversion devices = 111
• Devices operated by various motions of the waves = 118
• Underwater pressure field devices = 121
• Environmental implications of wave energy extraction = 124
• Economic considerations = 127
• Research problems associated with energy conversion from ocean waves = 132
• Summary = 134
• Appendix A = 137
• Appendix B = 143
• 3. Energy from ocean currents = 149
• Introduction and resource potential = 149
• Technology of energy conversion from ocean currents = 154
• Turbines = 154
• The Savonius Rotor = 159
• Other proposed schemes for extracting energy from ocean currents = 160
• Specific schemes proposed for the Florida current = 162
• Support for development of ocean current energy conversion technology = 163
• Environmental considerations = 164
• Economic considerations = 165
• Research and development needs = 167
• Turbine research and development = 169
• Environmental research = 171
• Other engineering problems needing research = 171
• Other problem areas for research = 172
• Summary = 172
• 4. Energy from ocean tides = 175
• Resource potential = 175
• Physical parameters = 175
• Potential tidal power sites = 177
• Existing tidal powerplants = 182
• Tidal currents = 183
• Technology = 183
• Single basin, one-direction scheme = 195
• Single basin, two-direction scheme = 195
• Single basin, two-direction pumped storage scheme = 195
• Double basin scheme = 196
• Double basin with pumping scheme = 196
• Tide augmented pumped storage scheme = 196
• Tide powered compressed air storage scheme = 196
• Tide powered hydrostatic pump, Pelton wheel scheme = 197
• Tidal currents = 197
• Turbogenerators = 197
• Sluice gate design = 202
• Control systems = 203
• Construction techniques = 203
• Environmental considerations = 203
• Economic considerations = 205
• Problems for research = 212
• Schemes of development = 212
• Barrages = 213
• Tidal range compensation = 213
• Gates and gate structures = 214
• Generating units and power house = 214
• Materials corrosion and fouling = 214
• Optimization of solutions = 215
• Federal activities = 215
• The Passamaquoddy project : A historical review = 215
• Current Federal activities = 218
• 5. Energy from oceanic wind = 223
• Introduction = 223
• Background = 223
• Early history = 223
• The present U.S. WECS program = 224
• Offshore WECS in the Federal program = 225
• Power characteristics of the wind = 225
• Availability of marine wind data = 226
• Efficiency of WECS = 226
• Available wind power at offshore sites = 227
• Problem areas in offshore WECS application = 230
• Summary = 231
• 6. Salinity gradient conversion processes = 233
• Introduction = 233
• Osmosis - Basic principle of operation = 233
• Membranes = 236
• Resource potential = 236
• Technology of salinity gradient energy systems = 238
• Estuarine salinity gradient energy converter = 238
• Pressure-retarded osmosis = 239
• Osmotic pump = 240
• Electric power from the dialytic battery = 242
• Federally-supported research on salinity gradient conversion technology = 243
• Problems for research = 243
• Summary = 244
• 7. Oceanic bioconversion = 245
• Resource potential = 245
• Technology = 247
• Plantation unit = 247
• Seeding = 248
• Growth = 248
• Harvesting = 250
• Processing for SNG = 250
• Processing for industrial products = 251
• Processing for food products = 252
• Environmental considerations = 253
• Economic considerations = 253
• Problems for research = 254
• Federal activities = 256
• NONRENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY FROM THE OCEAN
• 8. Deep ocean oil and gas = 259
• Resource potential = 262
• Technology = 269
• Techniques to locate hydrocarbons in offshore areas = 269
• Exploratory drilling and drilling rigs = 274
• Production and development technology = 280
• Transportation = 291
• Environmental considerations = 293
• Marine oil pollution in perspective = 294
• Fate of petroleum in the marine environment = 296
• Spill prevention and cleanup technology = 298
• Federal management of offshore leases = 299
• Resource conservation = 302
• Summary = 303
• Recent Federal OCS activities = 304
• 9. Offshore geothermal energy = 309
• Introduction = 309
• Resource potential = 310
• North Sea geothermal resources = 312
• Gulf coast geopressured geothermal resources = 313
• Technology = 316
• Exploration and drilling technology = 316
• Development and production technology = 317
• Environmental considerations = 322
• Summary = 324
• 10. Offshore hard mineral resources = 327
• Historical perspective = 327
• Resource potential = 327
• Technology = 329
• Environmental considerations = 330
• Economic considerations = 331
• Problems for research = 333
• 11. Selected bibliography = 335
• Ocean thermal energy conversion = 335
• Energy from ocean waves = 336
• Energy from ocean currents = 338
• Energy from ocean tides = 339
• Energy from oceanic wind = 339
• Salinity gradient energy conversion processes = 340
• Oceanic bioconversion = 340
• Deep ocean oil and gas = 340
• Offshore geothermal energy = 341
• Offshore hard minerals resource = 342