Natural refrigerants have received increasing attention as alternatives to conventional working fluids with high global warming potential (GWP) and ozone depletion potential (ODP), driven by international environmental regulations such as the Kigali A...
Natural refrigerants have received increasing attention as alternatives to conventional working fluids with high global warming potential (GWP) and ozone depletion potential (ODP), driven by international environmental regulations such as the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol. Among various natural refrigerants, propane (R290) has emerged as a promising candidate for heat pump applications due to its exceptional thermodynamic properties, latent heat of vaporization, favorable pressure levels, and negligible environmental impact. However, despite these advantages, the practical application of R290 in heat pump systems is significantly constrained by its high flammability, classified as safety group A3. Safety standards and regulations impose strict limits on the maximum allowable refrigerant charge, particularly in systems installed in occupied spaces. As a result, refrigerant charge minimization has become a critical design requirement for R290 heat pump systems.
In parallel with the push for low-GWP refrigerants, there has been a growing demand for heat pumps capable of delivering high heating capacity and efficiency under low ambient temperature conditions. Vapor injection heat pump technology has been widely recognized as an effective solution to enhance heating performance in cold climates. Through injecting intermediate-pressure vapor into the compressor, vapor injection reduces the effective compression ratio, increases mass flow rate through the condenser, and improves the coefficient of performance (COP). However, the incorporation of vapor injection typically requires additional components such as additional expansion device or internal heat exchanger (IHX), which inevitably increase the internal volume of the system and lead to higher refrigerant charge requirements. This creates a fundamental conflict between the objectives of performance enhancement and refrigerant charge reduction in R290 heat pump systems.
The present study addresses this challenge by developing a comprehensive steady-state numerical model of R290 vapor heat pump system and proposing a novel charge minimization strategy based on a three-expansion-valve (3EXV) injection configuration. Three system architectures are investigated and compared: a basic single-stage vapor compression heat pump, a conventional vapor injection heat pump with an internal heat exchanger, and the proposed 3EXV injection heat pump. The modeling framework is component-based and includes detailed sub-models for the compressor, plate-type condenser and evaporator, internal heat exchanger, and expansion valves. The compressor is modeled assuming polytropic compression with volumetric and efficiency correlations calibrated from previous vapor injection studies. Brazed plate heat exchangers with corrugated herringbone geometry are employed for both condensation and evaporation, and their heat transfer characteristics are evaluated using correlations developed specifically for two-phase flow in plate heat exchangers.
The system models are solved under steady-state conditions using an iterative solution procedure in which the condenser pressure and evaporator pressure are adjusted to satisfy both the specified refrigerant charge and a target degree of superheat at the compressor inlet. For injection systems, additional convergence variables such as intermediate pressure and injection mass flow rate are introduced. Total refrigerant charge is calculated by integrating the local refrigerant density over all control volumes in the system, including two-phase regions where void fraction models are applied. System performance is evaluated in terms of heating, cooling capacity and COP under a fixed set of operating conditions representative of low ambient temperature heating.
Simulation results indicate that the basic R290 heat pump system requires a minimum refrigerant charge of approximately 20 g to achieve stable operation, with a maximum COP in the range of 2.0–2.6 and heating capacity of 3.35–3.55 kW. The conventional vapor injection system significantly improves heating capacity and efficiency, achieving heating capacities of 4.39–5.39 kW and a maximum COP of approximately 3.06; however, stable operation is obtained only when the refrigerant charge exceeds about 70 g. In contrast, the proposed 3EXV injection system demonstrates the ability to maintain stable operation with reduced charge of 50 g while achieving a maximum COP of 3.062, comparable to that of the conventional injection system at 70 g. Parametric analysis reveals that an intermediate-to-high pressure ratio of 0.6 provides an optimal balance between charge reduction and performance enhancement.
The results of this study demonstrate that the 3EXV injection configuration can reduce the required R290 charge by approximately 30% without significant degradation of heating performance. This charge reduction is achieved by redistributing refrigerant inventory from high-pressure components to lower-risk regions of the system while preserving the thermodynamic benefits of vapor injection. The proposed modeling framework and system configuration provide valuable insights into the design of safe, efficient, and environmentally friendly R290 heat pump systems and offer a promising pathway for the broader adoption of hydrocarbon refrigerants in heating applications.