This article examines the legal structure of construction land use rights and building ownership in urban real estate relations under China’s state ownership of land, with particular focus on the meaning and limits of the principle of unity of land ...
This article examines the legal structure of construction land use rights and building ownership in urban real estate relations under China’s state ownership of land, with particular focus on the meaning and limits of the principle of unity of land and buildings in Chinese law. Since urban land in China is owned by the state, individuals and market actors cannot acquire land ownership itself, but may acquire construction land use rights for a certain period. By contrast, buildings such as residential houses constructed on such land are recognized as independent objects of ownership. As a result, urban real estate relations in China form a complex legal structure consisting of state land ownership, construction land use rights, and building ownership. Chinese law recognizes building ownership and construction land use rights as separate rights, but does not allow their disposition to be completely independent. At the stage of legal transactions such as transfer, mortgage, capital contribution, and donation, buildings and the underlying construction land use rights must be transferred or disposed of together. In this respect, the Chinese legal structure cannot be simply explained either by the German-style principle of unity of land and buildings or by the Korean and Japanese-style principle of separation of land and buildings. Chinese law forms a distinctive structure in which buildings and construction land use rights are recognized as separate rights at the stage of attribution, while their separation is restricted at the stage of disposition. To understand this structure clearly, it is necessary to distinguish between the “consistency of land and buildings” and the “unity of land and buildings.” The former refers to the issue of attribution, namely that building ownership and construction land use rights should belong to the same legal subject. The latter refers to a regulatory principle requiring buildings and land use rights to be handled together at the stage of disposition, including transactions, security interests, and enforcement procedures. Thus, the former is a static concept concerning the identity of the right holder, whereas the latter is a dynamic concept concerning the linkage of rights in the process of legal change. Various theories have been proposed regarding the legal nature of the principle of unity of land and buildings, including the theory of unified disposition, the principal-accessory rights theory, the same-object theory, the same-subject theory, and the prerequisite theory. However, considering that current Chinese law distinguishes building ownership and construction land use rights at the level of attribution while requiring them to be handled together at the stage of disposition, the theory of unified disposition appears to have the strongest explanatory power. Nevertheless, the expiration of residential construction land use rights reveals the limits of the principle of unity of land and buildings. Construction land use rights are limited in duration, whereas residential building ownership is, in principle, not subject to a fixed term. Therefore, after the expiration of the land use right, the legal basis of residential building ownership may become unstable. Article 359(1) of the Chinese Civil Code responds to this problem by providing for the automatic renewal of residential construction land use rights. However, it does not provide specific standards regarding renewal fees, renewal periods, the number of renewals, or renewal procedures. This article argues that the renewal of residential construction land use rights should, in principle, be free of charge. In many cases, the price of housing already reflects the land grant fee for a substantial period, and imposing additional fees at the expiration or renewal stage may result in a duplicative burden on right holders. Furthermore, with regard to the duration of renewal, this article proposes a model of “conditional permanent e...