Handbook of semiconductor technology

목차 (Table of Contents)

• [Volume. 1]----------
• CONTENTS
• 1 Band Theory Applied to Semiconductors / Michel Lannoo[D$$\acute e$$partement Institut Sup$$\acute e$$rieur d'Electronique du Nord, Institut d'Electronique et de Micro$$\acute e$$lectronique du Nord, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 3
• 1.1 General Principles = 5
• 1.1.1 From Discrete States to Bands = 5
• 1.1.2 Bloch Theorem for Crystalline Solids = 7
• 1.1.3 The Case of Disordered Systems = 9
• 1.1.4 The Effective Mass Approximation(EMA) = 10
• 1.1.4.1 Derivation of the Effective Mass Approximation for a Single Band = 10
• 1.1.4.2 Applications and Extensions = 12
• 1.2 The Calculation of Crystalline Band Structures = 14
• 1.2.1 Ab Initio Theories = 14
• 1.2.1.1 The Hartree Approximation = 14
• 1.2.1.2 The Hartree-Fock Approximation = 15
• 1.2.1.3 The Local Density Approximation = 16
• 1.2.1.4 Beyond Local Density(the G-W Approximation) = 17
• 1.2.1.5 The Pseudopotential Method = 17
• 1.2.2 Computational Techniques = 19
• 1.2.2.1 Plane Wave Expansion = 19
• 1.2.2.2 Localized Orbital Expansion = 19
• 1.2.3 Empirical Methods = 21
• 1.2.3.1 The Tight Binding Approximation = 21
• 1.2.3.2 The Empirical Pseudopotential Method = 22
• 1.3 Comparison with Experiments for Zinc Blende Materials = 23
• 1.3.1 The General Shape of the Bands = 23
• 1.3.1.1 The Tight Binding Point of View = 23
• 1.3.1.2 The Empirical Pseudopotential Method = 26
• 1.3.2 The k-p Description and Effective Masses = 29
• 1.3.3 Optical Properties and Excitons = 31
• 1.3.4 Ab Initio Calculations of the Excitonic Spectrum = 34
• 1.3.5 A Detailed Comparison with Experiments = 34
• 1.4 Other Crystalline Materials with Lower Symmetry = 36
• 1.4.1 General Results for Covalent Materials with Coordination Lower than Four = 36
• 1.4.2 Chain-Like Structures Like Se and Te = 37
• 1.4.3 Layer Materials = 38
• 1.4.4 New Classes of Materials : the Antimony Chalcogenides = 39
• 1.5 Non-Crystalline Semiconductors = 44
• 1.5.1 The Densities of States of Amorphous Semiconductors = 44
• 1.5.2 Numerical Computations = 46
• 1.5.3 Dangling Bonds = 47
• 1.5.4 The Case of SiOX Glasses = 49
• 1.6 Disordered Alloys = 51
• 1.6.1 Definitions of the Different Approximations = 52
• 1.6.2 The Case of Zinc Blende Pseudobinary Alloys = 54
• 1.7 Systems with Lower Dimensionality = 57
• 1.7.1 Qualitative Features = 57
• 1.7.2 The Envelope Function Approximation = 59
• 1.7.3 Applications of the Envelope Function Approximation = 61
• 1.7.4 Silicon Quantum Dots = 63
• 1.8 References = 65
• 2 Optical Properties and Charge Transport / R. G. Ulbrich[Ⅳ. Physikalisches Institut, Georg-August-Universit$$\ddot a$$t, G$$\ddot o$$ttingen, Germany]
• 2.1 Introduction = 70
• 2.2 Optical Properties of Bulk Crystals = 71
• 2.2.1 Band Structure and Electron-Hole Pair Excitations = 72
• 2.2.2 Dielectric Polarization and Response Function = 74
• 2.2.3 Correlated Electron-Hole Pairs : Excitons = 78
• 2.2.4 Single-Particle versus Pair Excitations = 79
• 2.2.5 Exciton-Photon Coupling : Polaritons = 80
• 2.3 Interband Absorption Spectra = 83
• 2.3.1 Direct versus Indirect Transitions = 83
• 2.3.2 Radiative Recombination Rate = 84
• 2.3.3 Angular Dependence of Interband Transitions = 85
• 2.3.4 Fundamental Gap Spectra at Low Excitation = 85
• 2.3.5 Exciton Screening = 87
• 2.4 Systems with Restricted Dimensionality = 89
• 2.4.1 Electronic Confinement = 91
• 2.4.2 Quantum Wells, -Wires and -Dots = 92
• 2.4.3 Optics of Quantum Confined Systems = 94
• 2.4.4 Microcavities and Photonic Band Gaps = 94
• 2.5 Charge Transport and Scattering Processes = 95
• 2.5.1 Momentum and Energy Relaxation of Carriers = 98
• 2.5.2 Phonon Scattering = 102
• 2.5.3 Carrier-Carrier Scattering = 104
• 2.5.4 Coherent Phenomena = 106
• 2.5.5 Spin Effects = 106
• 2.5.6 Quantum Transport = 107
• 2.6 Nonlinear Optics and High Field Transport = 109
• 2.6.1 Nonlinear Dielectric Response = 110
• 2.6.2 Carrier distributions far from equilibrium = 111
• 2.6.3 Carrier Dynamics on Ultrashort Time Scales = 112
• 2.7 Conclusion = 115
• 2.8 References = 115
• 3 Intrinsic Point Defects in Semiconductors 1999 / George D. Watkins[Department of Physics, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, U. S. A]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 123
• 3.1 Introduction = 125
• 3.2 Silicon = 127
• 3.2.1 Defect Production = 127
• 3.2.2 The Silicon Vacancy = 127
• 3.2.2.1 Electronic Structure = 127
• 3.2.2.2 Effects of Lattice Relaxation - General Considerations = 129
• 3.2.2.3 Electrical Level Positions of the Vacancy = 130
• 3.2.2.4 Vacancy Migration = 132
• 3.2.2.5 Vacancy Interactions with Other Defects = 133
• 3.2.3 The Silicon Interstitial = 135
• 3.2.3.1 Interstitial Migration = 135
• 3.2.3.2 Trapped Interstitials = 136
• 3.2.3.3 Theory of the Silicon Interstitial = 138
• 3.2.4 Close Frenkel Pairs = 140
• 3.3 Other Group Ⅳ Semiconductors = 141
• 3.3.1 Germanium = 141
• 3.3.2 Diamond = 141
• 3.3.3 SiC = 142
• 3.4 Ⅱ-Ⅵ Semiconductors = 143
• 3.4.1 ZnSe = 143
• 3.4.1.1 The Zinc Vacancy = 143
• 3.4.1.2 Zinc Vacancy Diffusion and Interaction with Other Defects = 145
• 3.4.1.3 Interstitial Zinc and Close Frenkel Pairs = 145
• 3.4.1.4 Defects on the Selenium Sublattice = 146
• 3.4.2 Other Ⅱ-Ⅵ Materials = 147
• 3.4.2.1 The Metal Vacancy = 147
• 3.4.2.2 The Chalcogen Vacancy = 148
• 3.4.2.3 The Other Intrinsic Defects = 148
• 3.4.3 Theory = 148
• 3.5 Ⅲ-Ⅴ Semiconductors = 149
• 3.5.1 Antisites = 149
• 3.5.1.1 The Anion Antisite $$Ⅴ_Ⅲ$$ = 149
• 3.5.1.2 The Cation Antisite $$Ⅲ_Ⅴ$$ = 151
• 3.5.2 Group-Ⅲ Atom Vacancies = 152
• 3.5.3 Metal Interstitials = 152
• 3.5.4 Defects on the Group-Ⅴ Sublattice = 153
• 3.6 Summary and Overview = 154
• 3.6.1 Summary = 155
• 3.6.1.1 Group Ⅳ Semiconductors = 155
• 3.6.1.2 Ⅱ-Ⅵ Semiconductors = 155
• 3.6.1.3 Ⅲ-Ⅴ Semiconductors = 156
• 3.6.2 Overview = 156
• 3.6.2.1 Vacancies = 157
• 3.6.2.2 Interstitials = 159
• 3.6.2.3 Antisites = 160
• 3.6.2.4 Migration Barriers = 160
• 3.7 Acknowledgements = 160
• 3.8 References = 161
• 4 Deep Centers in Semiconductors / Helmut Feichtinger[Institut f$$\ddot u$$r Experimentalphysik der Karl-Franzens-Universit$$\ddot a$$t, Graz, Austria]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 168
• 4.1 Introduction = 170
• 4.1.1 Shallow and Deep Impurities : Technological and Physical Relevance = 170
• 4.1.2 The Identification Problem and the Localization-Delocalization Puzzle = 172
• 4.2 Deep Centers : Electronic Transitions and Concepts = 174
• 4.2.1 Ionization at Thermal Equilibrium = 174
• 4.2.2 Franck-Condon Transitions and Relaxation = 176
• 4.3 Phenomenological Models and Electronic Structure = 180
• 4.3.1 The Point-Ion Crystal Field Model = 180
• 4.3.2 The Defect Molecule Picture = 183
• 4.3.2.1 Example : Nitrogen in Gallium Phosphide = 183
• 4.3.2.2 Transition Metals = 185
• 4.3.3 Transition Metals : Results of Quantitative Calculations = 187
• 4.3.3.1 Gap Levels and High Spin-Low Spin Ordering = 187
• 4.3.3.2 Coulomb Induced Nonlinear Screening and Self-Regulating Response = 192
• 4.3.4 Ionization Energies and Trends = 194
• 4.3.4.1 Transition Metals in Silicon = 194
• 4.3.4.2 Compound Semiconductors and Bulk References = 197
• 4.3.5 Excited States = 199
• 4.3.5.1 Internal Transitions = 199
• 4.3.5.2 Rydberg-Like States = 201
• 4.4 Properties of Selected Systems = 204
• 4.4.1 Chalcogens in Silicon = 204
• 4.4.1.1 Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium in Silicon = 204
• 4.4.1.2 Oxygen and Nitrogen in Silicon = 206
• 4.4.2 DX Centers in $$Al_x$$$$Ga_{1-x}$$As = 207
• 4.4.2.1 Large Lattice Relaxation and Metastability = 207
• 4.4.2.2 Microscopic Models for DX Centers = 210
• 4.4.3 Deep Transition Metal Donor-Shallow Acceptor Pairs in Silicon = 213
• 4.4.3.1 Electronic Structure and Trends = 213
• 4.4.3.2 Charge State Controlled Metastability = 214
• 4.4.4 Thermal Donors in Silicon = 216
• 4.4.5 Hydrogen Passivation = 219
• 4.5 Appendix : Ionization Energies and Level Positions of Isolated Transition Metal Impurities in Silicon = 222
• 4.6 References = 223
• 5 Point Defects, Diffusion, and Precipitation / T. Y. Tan[Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0300, USA] ; U. G$$\ddot o$$sele [Max-Planck-Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, D-06120 Halle, Germany]
• 5.1 Introduction = 233
• 5.2 Native (Intrinsic) Point Defects Under Thermal Equilibrium Conditions = 234
• 5.3 Native (Intrinsic) Point Defects Under Nonequilibrium Conditions = 237
• 5.4 Phenomenological Description of Diffusion Processes = 239
• 5.5 Atomistic Diffusion Mechanisms = 241
• 5.5.1 Diffusion Without Involvement of Native Point Defects = 241
• 5.5.2 Simple Vacancy Exchange and Interstitialcy Mechanisms = 242
• 5.5.3 Interstitial-Substitutional Mechanisms = 243
• 5.5.3.1 Uncharced Species = 243
• 5.5.3.2 Charged Species = 245
• 5.5.4 Recombination-Enhanced Diffusion = 246
• 5.6 Diffusion in Silicon = 246
• 5.6.1 General Remarks = 246
• 5.6.2 Silicon Self-Diffusion = 247
• 5.6.3 Interstitial-Substitutional Diffusion : Au, Pt, and Zn in Si = 249
• 5.6.4 Dopant Diffusion = 252
• 5.6.4.1 Fermi Level Effect = 252
• 5.6.4.2 Influence of Surface Reactions = 253
• 5.6.4.3 Dopant-Diffusion-Induced Nonequilibrium Effects = 256
• 5.6.4.4 Recombination-Enhanced Diffusion = 259
• 5.6.5 Diffusion of Carbon and Other Group Ⅳ Elements = 259
• 5.6.6 Diffusion of Si Self-Interstitials and Vacancies = 261
• 5.6.7 Oxygen and Hydrogen Diffusion = 263
• 5.7 Diffusion in Germanium = 264
• 5.8 Diffusion in Gallium Arsenide = 265
• 5.8.1 General Remark = 265
• 5.8.2 Gallium Self-Diffusion and Superlattice Disordering = 266
• 5.8.2.1 Intrinsic Gallium Arsenide = 266
• 5.8.2.2 Doped Gallium Arsenide = 268
• 5.8.3 Arsenic Self-Diffusion and Superlattice Disordering = 273
• 5.8.4 Impurity Diffusion in Gallium Arsenide = 274
• 5.8.4.1 Silicon Diffusion = 274
• 5.8.4.2 Interstitial-Substitutional Species = 275
• 5.8.5 Comparison to Diffusion in Other Ⅲ-Ⅴ Compounds = 280
• 5.9 Agglomeration and Precipitation = 280
• 5.9.1 Agglomerates of Native Point Defects in Silicon = 281
• 5.9.2 Void and Gallium Precipitate Formation During Zinc Diffusion into GaAs = 282
• 5.9.3 Precipitation with Volume Changes in Silicon = 283
• 5.10 References = 285
• 6 Dislocations / Helmut Alexander[Ⅱ. Physikalisches Institut der Universit$$\ddot a$$t K$$\ddot o$$ln, Federal Republic of Germany] ; Helmar Teichler [Institut f$$\ddot u$$r Materialphysik der Universit$$\ddot a$$t G$$\ddot o$$ttingen, G$$\ddot o$$ttingen, Federal Republic of Germany]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 293
• 6.1 Introduction = 296
• 6.2 Geometry = 297
• 6.3 Experimental Results on the Electronic Properties of Dislocations and Deformation-Induced Point Defects = 302
• 6.3.1 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance(EPR) Spectroscopy of Plastically Deformed Silicon = 308
• 6.3.2 Information on Dislocations and Point Defects from Electrical Measurements = 313
• 6.3.3 Phenomena Indicating Shallow Dislocation-Related States = 322
• 6.3.3.1 Photoluminescence(PL) = 322
• 6.3.3.2 Optical Absorption = 324
• 6.3.3.3 Microwave Conductivity(MWC) = 324
• 6.3.3.4 Electric Dipole Spin Resonance(EDSR) = 326
• 6.3.3.5 Electron Beam Induced Current(EBIC) = 327
• 6.3.4 Germanium = 328
• 6.3.5 Gallium Arsenide = 329
• 6.3.6 $$A^Ⅱ$$$$B^Ⅵ$$ Compounds = 331
• 6.4 Theoretical Investigations about Electronic Levels of Dislocations = 334
• 6.4.1 Core Structure Calculations = 334
• 6.4.2 Deep Electron Levels at Dislocations = 336
• 6.4.3 Core Bond Reconstruction and Reconstruction Defects = 338
• 6.4.4 Kinks, Reconstruction Defects, Vacancies, and Impurities in the Dislocation Cases = 340
• 6.4.5 Shallow Dislocation Levels = 344
• 6.4.6 Deep Dislocation Levels in Compounds = 344
• 6.5 Dislocation Motion = 346
• 6.5.1 General = 346
• 6.5.2 Measurements of the Velocity of Perfect Dislocations in Elemental Semiconductors = 347
• 6.5.3 Kink Formation and Kink Motion = 350
• 6.5.4 Experiments on the Mobility of Partial Dislocations = 352
• 6.5.5 Compounds = 357
• 6.6 Theory of Dislocation Motion = 358
• 6.6.1 Dislocation Motion in Undoped Material = 358
• 6.6.2 Dislocation Motion in Doped Semiconductors = 362
• 6.7 Dislocation Generation and Plastic Deformation = 365
• 6.7.1 Dislocation Nucleation = 365
• 6.7.2 Dislocation Multiplication(Plastic Deformation) = 368
• 6.7.3 Generation of Misfit Dislocations = 370
• 6.7.4 Gettering with the Help of Dislocations = 371
• 6.8 Acknowledgement = 371
• 6.9 References = 371
• 7 Grain Boundaries in Semiconductors / Jany Thibault ; Jean-Luc Rouviere ; Alain Bourret[CEA-Grenoble, D$$\acute e$$partement de Recherche Fondarnentale sur la Mati$$\grave e$$re Condens$$\acute e$$e, 17 rue des Martyrs, Grenoble, France]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 379
• 7.1 Introduction = 382
• 7.2 Grain Boundary Structure : Concepts and Tools = 383
• 7.2.1 Grain Boundary Definitions = 384
• 7.2.2 Geometrical Concepts = 385
• 7.2.3 Dislocation Model = 388
• 7.2.3.1 Primary Dislocation Network = 388
• 7.2.3.2 Secondary Dislocation Network = 389
• 7.2.3.3 Stress Field Associated with Grain Boundaries = 390
• 7.2.4 Structural Unit Descriptions = 392
• 7.2.4.1 Stick and Ball Structural Units = 392
• 7.2.4.2 Energetic Structural Units = 393
• 7.2.4.3 Algebraic Structural Units = 394
• 7.2.4.4 Structural Units and Dislocations／Disclinations = 395
• 7.2.4.5 The Limits of the Structural Unit Descriptions = 395
• 7.2.5 Computer Simulation Techniques = 395
• 7.2.5.1 Methods = 396
• 7.2.5.2 Boundary Conditions = 396
• 7.2.5.3 Interaction Laws = 398
• 7.2.6 Experimental Techniques = 399
• 7.3 Grain Boundary Structure : Experience and Simulation Results = 401
• 7.3.1 Silicon and Germanium = 401
• 7.3.1.1 Tilt Grain Boundaries = 401
• 7.3.1.2 Twist Grain Boundaries = 411
• 7.3.2 Diamond = 414
• 7.3.3 SiC = 414
• 7.3.4 GaAs = 415
• 7.3.5 GaN = 415
• 7.3.6 AlN = 415
• 7.3.7 NiO = 416
• 7.3.8 Comments on Grain Boundary Structures = 416
• 7.4 Electrical Properties of Grain Boundaries = 417
• 7.4.1 Introduction = 417
• 7.4.2 Electrical Effects Induced by Grain Boundaries = 417
• 7.4.2.1 Electronic States Associated with a Grain Boundary = 417
• 7.4.2.2 Potential Barrier and Transport Properties = 421
• 7.4.2.3 Dynamic Properties and Recombination Properties = 424
• 7.4.3 Experimental Methods for Measuring the Grain Boundary Electrical Activity = 424
• 7.4.3.1 Methods Based on Transport = 424
• 7.4.3.2 Transient Methods = 425
• 7.4.4 Correlation Between Electrical Activity and Structure = 426
• 7.4.4.1 Transport Experiments in Bicrystals = 426
• 7.4.4.2 Transport Properties Measured on Bicrystals = 427
• 7.4.4.3 Emission and Capture Properties of Silicon and Germanium Grain Boundaries = 428
• 7.4.4.4 Polyerystalline Silicon = 428
• 7.4.5 Intrinsic or Extrinsic Origin of Electrical Activity of Grain Boundaries = 429
• 7.5 Impurity Segregation and Precipitation Induced by Grain Boundaries = 431
• 7.5.1 Introduction = 431
• 7.5.2 Dopant Elements = 431
• 7.5.3 Oxygen and Sulfur = 432
• 7.5.4 Transition Elements = 433
• 7.5.4.1 Copper = 433
• 7.5.4.2 Nickel = 434
• 7.5.4.3 Iron = 434
• 7.5.5 Conclusions = 435
• 7.6 Mechanical Properties of Grain Boundaries in Semiconductors = 435
• 7.6.1 Introduction = 435
• 7.6.2 Interaction Between Dislocations and Grain Boundaries = 436
• 7.6.2.1 Dislocation Absorption = 436
• 7.6.2.2 Dislocation Transmission Across Grain Boundaries = 439
• 7.6.2.3 Grain Boundaries as a Dislocation Source = 440
• 7.6.2.4 Grain Boundary Dislocation Movement = 440
• 7.6.3 Physical Consequences = 441
• 7.6.3.1 Grain Boundary Migration = 441
• 7.6.3.2 Recovery of the Grain Boundary Structure and Cavitation = 442
• 7.6.4 Deformation Modeling = 443
• 7.7 Conclusions = 444
• 7.8 References = 445
• 8 Interfaces / R. Hull[Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Virginia, USA] ; A. Ourmazd ; W. D. Rau ; P. Schwander[Institute for Semiconductor Physics, Frankfurt (Oder), Germany] ; M. L. Green ; R. T. Tung[Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies, Murray Hill, NJ, USA]
• 8.1 Introduction = 455
• 8.2 Experimental Techniques = 455
• 8.3 Interfaces between Latticc -Matched, Isostructural Systems = 457
• 8.3.1 Definition = 457
• 8.3.2 Structure = 459
• 8.3.2.1 Microscopic Structure = 459
• 8.3.2.2 Mesoscopic and Macroscopic Structure = 472
• 8.3.2.3 Interfaces Defined by Inhomogeneous Doping = 474
• 8.3.3 Relaxation of Chemical Interfaces = 479
• 8.3.3.1 Interdiffusion due to Thermal Annealing = 480
• 8.3.3.2 Intermixing due to Ion Implantation = 481
• 8.3.4 Summary = 482
• 8.4 Interfaces Between Lattice-Mismatched, Isostructural Systems = 483
• 8.4.1 Lattice Mismatch Strain and Relaxation Mechanisms = 483
• 8.4.1.1 Origin and Magnitude of Lattice Mismatch Strain = 483
• 8.4.1.2 Strain Accommodation and Relief Mechanisms = 484
• 8.4.1.3 Epitaxial Layer Roughening = 485
• 8.4.1.4 Interdiffusion = 487
• 8.4.1.5 Misfit Dislocations = 488
• 8.4.1.6 Competition Between Different Relaxation Modes = 489
• 8.4.2 The Critical Thickness for Misfit Dislocation Introduction : Excess Stress = 490
• 8.4.2.1 Basic Concepts : Single Interface Systems = 490
• 8.4.2.2 Extension to Multilayer Systems = 491
• 8.4.3 Misfit Dislocation Kinetics = 493
• 8.4.3.1 Kinetic Relaxation Models = 493
• 8.4.3.2 Nucleation of Misfit Dislocations = 494
• 8.4.3.3 Propagation of Misfit Dislocations = 497
• 8.4.3.4 Interactions of Misfit Dislocations = 499
• 8.4.4 Techniques for Reducing Interfacial and Threading Dislocation Densities = 500
• 8.4.5 Electrical Properties of Misfit Dislocations = 503
• 8.4.6 Summary = 504
• 8.5 Interfaces Between Crystalline Systems Differing in Composition and Structure = 505
• 8.5.1 Introduction = 505
• 8.5.2 Fabrication of Epitaxial Silicide - Si Interfaces = 507
• 8.5.2.1 Monolayers Reaction = 507
• 8.5.2.2 Interlayer Mediated Epitaxy = 513
• 8.5.2.3 Growth of Silicon on Silicides = 515
• 8.5.2.4 Conglomeration of Silicide Precipitates = 516
• 8.5.3 Epitaxial Elemental Metals = 518
• 8.5.4 Epitaxial Metallic Compounds on Ⅲ-Ⅴ Semiconductors = 519
• 8.5.5 Structure, Energetics, and Electronic Properties of M-S Interfaces = 520
• 8.5.5.1 Epitaxial Silicide - Silicon Interfaces = 520
• 8.5.5.2 Epitaxial Elemental Metals = 523
• 8.5.5.3 Intermetallic Compounds on Ⅲ-Ⅴ Semiconductors = 524
• 8.5.6 Conclusions = 524
• 8.6 Interfaces Between Crystalline and Amorphous Materials : Dielectrics on Silicon = 524
• 8.6.1 The Si／SiO₂ System = 524
• 8.6.1.1 Processing = 525
• 8.6.2 The Si／Si$$O_x$$$$N_y$$ System = 529
• 8.6.3 Alternative Gate Dielectrics = 531
• 8.7 Conclusions = 532
• 8.8 References = 533
• 9 Material Properties of Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon / R. A. Street ; K. Winer[Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, Palo Alto, CA, U.S.A.]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 543
• 9.1 Introduction = 546
• 9.1.1 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition Growth of Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon = 546
• 9.1.2 Molecular Structure = 549
• 9.1.3 Chemical Bonding = 550
• 9.1.4 Localization of Electronic States = 552
• 9.2 Electronic Structure and Localized States = 553
• 9.2.1 Band Tail States = 553
• 9.2.2 Doping and Dopant States = 554
• 9.2.2.1 The Doping Efficiency = 555
• 9.2.2.2 Dopant States = 556
• 9.2.3 Native Defects and Defect States = 558
• 9.2.3.1 Microscopic Character of Defects = 558
• 9.2.3.2 Dependence of the Defect Concentration on Doping = 558
• 9.2.3.3 Distribution of Defect States = 559
• 9.2.3.4 Dependence of the Defect Concentration on Growth Conditions = 561
• 9.2.4 Surfaces and Interfaces = 561
• 9.2.4.1 Surface States = 561
• 9.2.4.2 Oxidation = 562
• 9.2.4.3 Interfaces = 562
• 9.2.5 Alloys = 563
• 9.3 Electronic Transport = 564
• 9.3.1 Conductivity, Thermopower and Hall Effect = 564
• 9.3.2 The Drift Mobility = 566
• 9.4 Defect Equilibrium and Metastability = 568
• 9.4.1 The Hydrogen Glass Model = 568
• 9.4.2 Thermal Equilibration of Electronic States = 570
• 9.4.3 The Defect Compensation Model of Doping = 571
• 9.4.4 The Weak Bond Model = 573
• 9.4.4.1 The Distribution of Gap States = 575
• 9.4.5 Defect Reaction Kinetics = 576
• 9.4.5.1 Stretched Exponential Decay = 576
• 9.4.5.2 Hydrogen Diffusion = 577
• 9.4.6 Metastability = 578
• 9.4.6.1 Defect Creation by Illumination = 580
• 9.4.6.2 Defect Creation by Bias and Current = 582
• 9.5 Devices and Applications = 583
• 9.5.1 Thin Film Transistors = 583
• 9.5.2 P-i-n Photodiodes and Solar Cells = 584
• 9.5.2.1 The Photodiode Electrical Characteristics = 585
• 9.5.3 Matrix Addressed Arrays = 589
• 9.6 Summary = 592
• 9.7 References = 593
• 10 High-Temperature Properties of Transition Elements in Silicon / Wolfgang Schr$$\ddot o$$oter ; Michael Seibt[Ⅳ. Physikalisches Institut der Georg-August-Universlt$$\ddot a$$t G$$\ddot o$$ttingen, Germany] ; Dieter Gilles[Wacker Siltronic AG, Burghausen, Germany]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 599
• 10.1 Introduction = 603
• 10.2 Transition Elements in Intrinsic Silicon = 604
• 10.2.1 Solubility = 604
• 10.2.2 Diffusion = 609
• 10.3 Solubility and Diffusion in Extrinsic Silicon = 615
• 10.3.1 Introduction = 615
• 10.3.2 Solubility = 616
• 10.3.3 Diffusion = 618
• 10.3.4 High Temperature Electronic Structure = 619
• 10.4 Precipitation of Transition Elements in Silicon = 621
• 10.4.1 General Considerations = 621
• 10.4.1.1 Chemical Driving Force = 622
• 10.4.1.2 Precipitate Composition = 624
• 10.4.1.3 Spatial Distribution of Precipitates = 625
• 10.4.2 Atomic Structure of Silicide Precipitates = 625
• 10.4.2.1 Precipitation Without Volume Change : Nickel and Cobalt = 625
• 10.4.2.2 Precipitation with Volume Expansion : Copper and Palladium = 630
• 10.4.3 Heterogeneous Precipitation = 633
• 10.4.3.1 Iron in Silicon = 633
• 10.4.3.2 Copper in Silicon = 634
• 10.4.3.3 Nickel in Silicon = 634
• 10.4.4 Electrical Properties of Silicide Precipitates = 635
• 10.4.4.1 Recombination Behavior of Silicide Precipitates = 636
• 10.4.4.2 Spectroscopy of Deep States at Silicide Precipitates = 636
• 10.4.5 Silicide Precipitation at Si／SiO₂, Interfaces = 638
• 10.5 Gettering Techniques and Mechanisms = 639
• 10.5.1 Introduction to Gettering Mechanisms = 639
• 10.5.2 Internal Gettering = 640
• 10.5.2.1 Oxygen Precipitation Gettering = 640
• 10.5.2.2 p／$$p^+$$ Gettering = 645
• 10.5.3 External Gettering = 646
• 10.5.3.1 Introduction = 646
• 10.5.3.2 Poly-Silicon Gettering = 647
• 10.5.3.3 Aluminum Gettering = 648
• 10.5.3.4 Cavity Gettering = 648
• 10.5.3.5 Phosphorus Diffusion Gettering, Segregation and Injection Gettering = 649
• 10.6 Summary and Outlook = 655
• 10.7 References = 656
• 11 Fundamental Aspects of SiC / Wolfgang J. Choyke ; Robert P. Devaty[Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, U.S.A.]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 663
• 11.1 Introduction = 665
• 11.2 Polytypism = 665
• 11.2.1 Crystallography = 665
• 11.2.2 Inequivalent Sites = 666
• 11.2.3 Some Properties of Simple Polytypes = 667
• 11.2.4 Origin of Polytypism = 668
• 11.3 Band Structure = 670
• 11.3.1 The General Picture = 670
• 11.3.2 The Conduction Band Edges = 672
• 11.3.3 The Valence Band Edges = 677
• 11.4 Phonons = 679
• 11.4.1 Calculations of Phonon Dispersion Relations = 679
• 11.4.2 Infrared Transmission and Reflection = 679
• 11.4.3 Phonon Frequencies Measured by Low Temperature Photoluminescence(LTPL) and the k-space Locations of Conduction Band Minima = 681
• 11.4.4 First and Second Order Raman Scattering = 682
• 11.4.5 Raman Scattering from Free Carriers = 683
• 11.5 Intrinsic Excitons = 686
• 11.6 Shallow Centers = 687
• 11.6.1 Shallow Donors : Nitrogen and Phosphorus = 688
• 11.6.1.1 Nitrogen
• 11.6.1.2 Phosphorus = 691
• 11.6.2 Acceptors = 692
• 11.7 Deep Centers = 694
• 11.7.1 Transition Metals = 694
• 11.7.1.1 Titanium = 695
• 11.7.1.2 Vanadium = 696
• 11.7.1.3 Chromium = 697
• 11.7.1.4 Molybdenum = 698
• 11.7.1.5 Scandium = 698
• 11.7.1.6 Manganese = 699
• 11.7.2 Rare Earths : Erbium = 699
• 11.7.3 Intrinsic Defects = 700
• 11.7.3.1 Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy(DLTS) = 700
• 11.7.3.2 Electron Spin Resonance and Positron Annihilation = 701
• 11.7.3.3 Low Temperature Photoluminescence = 702
• 11.8 Transport Properties = 704
• 11.8.1 Carrier Effective Masses = 704
• 11.8.2 Mobilities and Mobility Anisotropy = 704
• 11.8.3 Hall Scattering Factor = 705
• 11.8.4 Time-Resolved Measurements and Lifetimes = 706
• 11.9 Acknowledgement = 708
• 11.10 References = 708
• 12 New Materials : Semiconductors for Solar Cells / Hans Joachim M$$\ddot o$$1ler[Institute for Experimental Physics, Technical University Bergakademic Frelberg, Freiberg, Germany]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 716
• 12.1 Introduction = 718
• 12.2 Basic Principles of Solar Energy Conversion = 719
• 12.2.1 Technology of Solar Cell Devices = 719
• 12.2.2 Fundamental Material Parameters = 724
• 12.3 Monocrystalline and Polycrystalline Silicon = 726
• 12.3.1 High-Quality Silicon = 726
• 12.3.1.1 Czoehralski and Tri-Crystal Growth = 727
• 12.3.1.2 Defect Structure and Material Properties = 728
• 12.3.2 Multicrystalline Silicon = 729
• 12.3.2.1 Ingot Growth Technologies = 729
• 12.3.2.2 Defect Structure and Electronic Properties = 730
• 12.3.3 Ribbon Growth Technologies = 737
• 12.3.3.1 Technological Development = 737
• 12.3.3.2 Microstructure and Electronic Properties = 739
• 12.3.4 Properties of Efficiency Limiting Defects = 741
• 12.3.4.1 Oxygen and Carbon Related Defects = 741
• 12.3.4.2 Gettering of Transition Metals = 746
• 12.3.4.3 Hydrogen Passivation = 747
• 12.4 Thin Film Silicon = 750
• 12.4.1 Polycrystalline Thin Films = 750
• 12.4.2 Microcrystalline and Amorphous Films = 752
• 12.4.3 Optical and Electronic Transport Properties = 753
• 12.4.3.1 Polycrystalline Films = 753
• 12.4.3.2 Amorphous Solar Cells = 755
• 12.5 Polycrystalline Thin Film Compound Semiconductors = 756
• 12.5.1 Cadmium-Telluride = 756
• 12.5.1.1 Processing Techniques and Related Material Problems = 757
• 12.5.1.2 Electronic Properties = 757
• 12.5.2 Chalcopyrite Semiconductors = 758
• 12.5.2.1 General Properties Of CuInSe₂, and Related Compounds = 758
• 12.5.2.2 Deposition Techniques = 762
• 12.5.2.3 Electronic Properties = 763
• 12.6 Special Solar Cell Concepts = 764
• 12.6.1 High Efficiency Solar Cell Materials = 764
• 12.6.2 Dye Sensitized TiO₂ = 765
• 12.7 References = 766
• 13 New Materials : Gallium Nitride / Eicke R. Weber ; Joachim Kr$$\ddot u$$ger[Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley CA, U. S. A and Materials Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, U. S. A] ; Christian Kisielowski[National Center for Electron Microscopy, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, U. S. A]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 772
• 13.1 Introduction = 774
• 13.1.1 Applications of GaN and Related Alloys = 774
• 13.1.2 Specific Materials Problems of Ⅲ-Nitrides = 775
• 13.2 Growth of GaN and Related Alloys = 777
• 13.2.1 Bulk Growth from Solution = 777
• 13.2.2 Hydride Vapor Phase Epitaxy(HVPE) of Ⅲ-Nitrides = 778
• 13.2.3 Metal-Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy(MOVPE) of Ⅲ-Nitrides = 778
• 13.2.4 Molecular Beam Epitaxy(MBE) of Ⅲ-Nitrides = 780
• 13.2.5 Epitaxial Lateral Overgrowth(ELOG) of Ⅲ-Nitrides = 781
• 13.2.6 Laser Lift-Off = 782
• 13.3 Defects in Ⅲ-Nitrides = 783
• 13.3.1 Extended Defects = 783
• 13.3.2 Point Defects and Doping Issues = 787
• 13.4 Optical Properties of Ⅲ-Nitrides = 789
• 13.4.1 Bandedge-Related Transitions = 789
• 13.4.2 Donor - Acceptor Pairs = 794
• 13.4.3 Yellow Luminescence = 795
• 13.4.4 Cubic GaN = 796
• 13.5 Electrical Properties of Ⅲ-Nitrides = 797
• 13.6 Devices Based on Ⅲ-Nitrides = 800
• 13.6.1 Optical Devices : Light Emitting Diodes(LEDS) and Lasers = 801
• 13.6.2 Electronic Devices : Field Effect Transistors(FETs) = 803
• 13.7 Outlook = 803
• 13.8 Acknowledgements = 804
• 13.9 References = 804
• [Volume. 2]----------
• CONTENTS
• 1 Silicon Processing / John G. Wilkes[Formerly with Philips Components Ltd., Southampton, U.K] ; Updated by Wen Lin[Lucent Technologies, Allentown, Pa, U.S.A.] ; Ken E. Benson[Formerly with AT&T, Allentown, Pa, U.S.A.] - October, 1999
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 2
• 1.1 Introduction = 5
• 1.2 Metallurgical-Grade Silicon = 7
• 1.3 Semiconductor Grade Polycrystal Silicon = 11
• 1.3.1 The Chlorosilane Route = 11
• 1.3.2 The Silane Route = 13
• 1.4 Single Crystal Silicon = 16
• 1.4.1 Float-Zoned Silicon = 16
• 1.4.2 Neutron Transmutation Doped Silicon = 18
• 1.4.3 Carbon and Nitrogen in Float-Zoned Silicon = 20
• 1.4.4 Periodic Crystal Growth = 21
• 1.5 Czochralski Silicon = 24
• 1.5.1 Dislocation-Free Silicon = 25
• 1.5.2 Constitutional Supercooling = 27
• 1.5.3 The Incorporation of Carbon and Oxygen = 29
• 1.5.4 Magnetic Czochralski Silicon = 33
• 1.5.5 Evolution in Czochralski Crystal Diameter = 34
• 1.6 Wafer preparation = 36
• 1.6.1 Slicing = 37
• 1.6.2 Edge Rounding = 38
• 1.6.3 Lapping／Grinding = 39
• 1.6.4 Chemical Etching = 39
• 1.6.5 Polishing = 39
• 1.6.6 Cleaning = 40
• 1.6.7 Mechanical Damage in Silicon = 41
• 1.7 Oxygen in Czochralski Silicon = 46
• 1.7.1 The Behavior of Oxygen in Silicon = 46
• 1.7.2 The Precipitation of Oxygen in Silicon = 48
• 1.7.3 Thermal Donors and Enhanced Diffusion = 52
• 1.8 Gettering Engineering = 53
• 1.8.1 Extrinsic Gettering in Silicon = 53
• 1.8.2 Intrinsic Gettering in Silicon = 56
• 1.9 Acknowledgements = 61
• 1.10 References = 62
• 2 Compound Semiconductor Processing / J. Brian Mullin[Electronic Materials Consultancy, Malvern, Worcestershire, U.K]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 69
• 2.1 Introduction = 70
• 2.2 Historical Background = 70
• 2.3 Purification = 73
• 2.3.1 General Purification Procedures = 73
• 2.3.2 Zone Refining and Related Techniques = 74
• 2.3.3 Problems with Specific Compounds = 74
• 2.3.3.1 InSb and GaSb = 75
• 2.3.3.2 InAs and GaAs = 76
• 2.3.3.3 InP and GaP = 76
• 2.3.3.4 Ⅱ-Ⅵ Compounds = 76
• 2.4 Technical Constraints to Melt Growth Techniques = 77
• 2.4.1 Chemical Reactivity = 78
• 2.4.2 Melting Point = 79
• 2.4.3 Vapor Pressure = 79
• 2.5 Crystal Growth = 79
• 2.5.1 Horizontal Growth = 80
• 2.5.2 Vertical Growth = 82
• 2.5.3 Crystal Pulling = 84
• 2.5.4 Liquid Encapsulated Czochralski(LEC) Pulling = 86
• 2.5.4.1 The Low Pressure LEC Technique = 86
• 2.5.4.2 The High Pressure LEC Technique = 86
• 2.6 Crystal Growth of Specific Compounds = 87
• 2.6.1 InSb = 88
• 2.6.2 InAs and GaAs = 88
• 2.6.3 InP = 90
• 2.6.4 Ⅱ-Ⅵ Compounds : General = 92
• 2.6.4.1 Bulk H$$g_{1-x}$$C$$d_x$$Te = 92
• 2.6.4.2 CdTe and C$$d_{1-x}$$Z$$n_x$$Te = 93
• 2.6.4.3 ZnSe = 94
• 2.6.4.4 ZnS and CdS = 94
• 2.7 Fundamental Aspects of Crystal Growth = 95
• 2.7.1 Structure = 96
• 2.7.2 Temperature Distribution, Crystal Shape and Diameter Control = 96
• 2.7.3 Solute Distribution = 99
• 2.7.4 Constitutional Supercooling = 100
• 2.7.5 Facet Effect, Anisotropic Segregation and Twinning = 102
• 2.7.6 Dislocations and Grain Boundaries = 105
• 2.8 Wafering and Slice Preparation = 106
• 2.9 References = 107
• 3 Epitaxial Growth / Thomas F. Kuech[Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, U.S.A.] ; Michael A. Tischler[Advanced Technology Materials, Inc., Danbury, CT, U.S.A.]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 112
• 3.1 Introduction = 114
• 3.2 The Epitaxial Process : General Features = 118
• 3.2.1 Surface Thermodynamics and Surface Structure = 119
• 3.2.2 Surface Transport and Incorporation = 124
• 3.2.3 Growth Behaviors = 126
• 3.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition : Technology and Issues = 130
• 3.3.1 Reactors : Mass, Fluid, and Thermal Transport = 132
• 3.3.1.1 Fluid Behavior and Reactor Design = 132
• 3.3.1.2 Mass and Thermal Transport = 135
• 3.3.2 Gas Phase and Surface Chemistry = 136
• 3.4 Liquid Phase Epitaxy(LPE) Technology = 140
• 3.4.1 LPE Growth Procedures = 143
• 3.5 Molecular Beam Epitaxy(MBE) Technology = 146
• 3.6 Specific Epitaxial Systems : Materials and Growth Issues = 152
• 3.6.1 Silicon Chemical Vapor Deposition = 152
• 3.6.1.1 Silicon Chemical Vapor Deposition : Surface and Reactor Considerations = 152
• 3.6.1.2 Silicon Chemical Vapor Deposition : Growth Chemistry = 156
• 3.6.1.3 Heterojunction Formation = 159
• 3.6.1.4 Impurity Incorporation = 161
• 3.6.2 GaAS MBE = 161
• 3.6.3 Growth of AlGaAs by LPE = 166
• 3.6.4 InP Metal Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy(MOVPE) = 170
• 3.7 Acknowledgement = 175
• 3.8 References = 175
• 4 Photolithography / Rainer Leuschner[Infineon Technology, Memory Products, Erlangen, Germany] ; Georg Pawlowski[Clariant Japan K. K., BU Electronic Materials, Shizuoka, Japan]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 179
• 4.1 Introduction = 182
• 4.2 Exposure Tools = 184
• 4.2.1 Image Formation and Resolution = 184
• 4.2.2 Contact and Proximity Printing = 186
• 4.2.2.1 Optical Mask Aligner = 186
• 4.2.2.2 X-Ray Stepper = 187
• 4.2.3 Projection Printing = 189
• 4.2.3.1 Near UV Projection Systems = 189
• 4.2.3.2 Deep UV Projection Systems = 190
• 4.2.3.3 Nonconventional UV Lithography = 191
• 4.2.4 Post-Optical Lithography = 193
• 4.3 Photoresist Processing = 195
• 4.3.1 Quality Control and Resist Deposition = 195
• 4.3.1.1 Purity and Storage Stability = 195
• 4.3.1.2 Resist Coating = 196
• 4.3.2 Resist Exposure and Development = 197
• 4.3.2.1 Characteristic Curve and Standing Wave Effects = 197
• 4.3.2.2 Process Latitudes = 198
• 4.3.2.3 Dissolution Rate and Development Methods = 199
• 4.3.3 Pattern Inspection and Resist Profile Simulation = 201
• 4.3.4 Etching, Resist Stripping and Planarization Concepts = 201
• 4.4 Photoresists = 203
• 4.4.1 Principles of Photoresist Chemistry = 203
• 4.4.2 Negative-Tone Resists = 204
• 4.4.2.1 Photocrosslinking via Azides = 204
• 4.4.2.2 Free-Radical-Initiated Polymerization = 205
• 4.4.2.3 Acid-Catalyzed Crosslinking = 206
• 4.4.3 Positive-Tone Resists = 214
• 4.4.3.1 Dissolution Inhibition／Dissolution Promotion = 214
• 4.4.3.2 Acid-Catalyzed Deblocking = 221
• 4.4.3.3 Polymer Degradation = 232
• 4.4.4 Solvents for Photoresists and Main Resist Suppliers = 233
• 4.5 Special Photoresist Techniques = 234
• 4.5.1 Nonconventional Diazo Resist Processes = 234
• 4.5.1.1 Resist Profile Modification and Image Reversal = 234
• 4.5.1.2 Bilayer Systems for Contrast Enhancement = 236
• 4.5.2 Suppression of Reflections and Standing Wave Effects = 237
• 4.5.2.1 Dyed Resists = 237
• 4.5.2.2 Antireflective Layers = 237
• 4.5.3 Silicon-Containing Multilayer Resists = 240
• 4.5.3.1 Negative-Tone Silicon Bilayer Resists = 241
• 4.5.3.2 Positive-Tone Silicon Bilayer Resists = 242
• 4.5.4 Top Surface Imaging = 245
• 4.5.4.1 Gas Phase Silylation Systems = 245
• 4.5.4.2 Liquid Phase Silylation Systems = 246
• 4.6 Trends in Photolithography = 252
• 4.7 References = 254
• 5 Selective Doping / Subhash Mahajan[Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, U.S.A.]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 266
• 5.1 Introduction = 268
• 5.2 Diffusion = 268
• 5.2.1 Atomic Diffusion Mechanisms = 269
• 5.2.1.1 Interstitial Diffusion = 269
• 5.2.1.2 Substitutional Diffusion = 269
• 5.2.2 Phenomenological Description of Diffusion = 269
• 5.2.3 Selective Doping by Diffusion = 270
• 5.2.4 Dependence of Diffusion Coefficient on Temperature = 272
• 5.2.5 Dependence of Diffusion Coefficient on Concentration = 273
• 5.2.6 Interaction of Diffusants with Charged Defects = 274
• 5.2.7 Diffusivities of B, P, and As in Si = 275
• 5.2.8 Diffusion of Si, Zn, Be, and Cr in GaAs = 276
• 5.2.9 Diffusion-Induced Dislocation Networks = 277
• 5.3 Ion Implantation = 278
• 5.3.1 Salient Features of Ion Implantation = 279
• 5.3.2 Ion Channeling = 281
• 5.3.3 Ion Implantation-Induced Damage and Its Annealing Behavior = 282
• 5.4 Comparison Between Diffusion and Ion Implantation for Selective Doping = 288
• 5.5 References = 289
• 6 Etching Processes in Semiconductor Manufacturing / Kevin G. Donohoe[Formerly with Applied Materials, Santa Clara, CA, U.S.A.] ; Terry Turner[Fourth State Technology, Austin, TX, U.S.A.] ; Kenneth A. Jackson[Arizona Materials Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A.]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 293
• Glossary = 294
• 6.1 Introduction = 295
• 6.1.1 Wet Etching = 294
• 6.1.2 Dry Etching = 296
• 6.1.3 Etch Control and Metrology = 296
• 6.2 Equipment : Description of Hardware = 297
• 6.2.1 Wet Sinks = 297
• 6.2.2 Dry Processing = 298
• 6.2.3 Etch Hardware = 299
• 6.2.3.1 Barrel Etchers = 300
• 6.2.3.2 Plasma Etchers = 301
• 6.2.3.3 Reactive Ion Etchers = 301
• 6.2.3.4 Remote Plasma Generation : Microwave and ECR = 304
• 6.3 Endpoint, Diagnostic and Control Techniques = 305
• 6.3.1 Endpoint Monitors = 305
• 6.3.1.1 Optical Emission Spectroscopy(OES) = 306
• 6.3.1.2 Laser Interferometry = 307
• 6.3.1.3 Residual Gas Analysis／Mass Spectroscopy = 309
• 6.3.1.4 RF and Bias Voltage = 310
• 6.3.2 Diagnostic Tools／Metrology for Process Control = 312
• 6.3.2.1 Machine Related Metrology = 312
• 6.3.2.2 Process Related Measurements = 315
• 6.3.3 Control Techniques = 317
• 6.3.3.1 Present Control Strategy = 318
• 6.3.3.2 What is Needed? = 318
• 6.3.3.3 Possible Solutions = 319
• 6.4 Process Discussion : General Considerations = 320
• 6.4.1 Isolation = 320
• 6.4.2 Gate Definition = 321
• 6.4.3 Silicides = 322
• 6.4.4 Contact Etching = 323
• 6.4.5 Planarization Etch Steps = 326
• 6.4.6 Via Etching = 328
• 6.4.7 Metal Etching = 329
• 6.5 Etch Processing for 4Mb DRAM = 331
• 6.5.1 Wafer Preparation = 331
• 6.5.2 N-Well = 331
• 6.5.3 P-Well Field Implant = 334
• 6.5.4 Iso Mask = 334
• 6.5.5 Connector Mask = 334
• 6.5.6 Trench Capacitor = 334
• 6.5.7 Inter-Polysilicon Oxide Mask = 335
• 6.5.8 Gate Mask = 335
• 6.5.9 LDD Spacer Etch = 336
• 6.5.10 Contact Etch = 336
• 6.5.11 Poly 3 Polycide Etch = 337
• 6.5.12 Contact Mask 2 = 337
• 6.5.13 Metal 1 Mask = 337
• 6.5.14 Pad Mask／Polyimide Mask = 337
• 6.6 Summary = 338
• 6.7 References = 338
• 7 Silicon Device Structures / Chun-Yen Chang ; Simon M. Sze[National Chlao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, R.O.C.]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 342
• 7.1 Introduction = 345
• 7.2 Potential-Effect Devices = 346
• 7.2.1 $$n^+$$-i-$$n^+$$ Diode = 346
• 7.2.2 Planar Doped Barrier = 347
• 7.2.3 p-n Junction = 348
• 7.2.4 Bipolar Transistor = 350
• 7.2.5 Heterojunction = 352
• 7.2.6 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor = 353
• 7.2.7 Thyristors = 355
• 7.2.8 Hot Electron Transistor = 357
• 7.3 Field-Effect Devices = 358
• 7.3.1 Metal-Silicon Contact = 358
• 7.3.2 Homogeneous Field-Effect Transistors = 360
• 7.3.3 MOS Structure and Charge-Coupled Devices = 360
• 7.3.4 MOSFET = 362
• 7.3.4.1 Submicrometer MOSFET = 362
• 7.3.4.2 Silicon-on-Insulator Devices = 366
• 7.3.4.3 Thin-Film Transistors = 367
• 7.3.4.4 Nonvolatile Memory = 368
• 7.3.5 MODFET = 370
• 7.3.6 Microvacuum Field Emitter = 371
• 7.4 Quantum-Effect Devices = 373
• 7.4.1 Introduction = 373
• 7.4.2 Quantum Wells, Wires, and Dots = 373
• 7.4.3 Resonant-Tunneling Diode = 375
• 7.4.4 Multiple Quantum Well Detector = 377
• 7.4.5 Resonant-Tunneling Hot-Electron Transistor = 377
• 7.5 Microwave and Photonic Diodes = 380
• 7.5.1 IMPATT Diode = 380
• 7.5.2 BARITT Diode = 382
• 7.5.3 Photodetectors = 382
• 7.5.4 Solar Cells = 385
• 7.6 Outlook = 387
• 7.7 Acknowledgements = 389
• 7.8 References = 389
• 8 Compound Semiconductor Device Structures / William E. Stanchina ; Juan E. Lam[Hughes Research Laboratories, Malibu, CA, U.S.A.]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 392
• 8.1 Introduction = 394
• 8.2 Key Material Properties = 394
• 8.3 Group Ⅲ-Ⅴ Materials Preparation = 396
• 8.4 Field-Effect Transistors(FETs) = 397
• 8.4.1 Metal - Semiconductor FETs(MESFETs) = 398
• 8.4.2 Heterostructure FETs = 400
• 8.4.3 High Electron Mobility Transistors = 400
• 8.5 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors = 402
• 8.6 Novel Semiconductor Laser Diodes = 404
• 8.6.1 Introduction = 404
• 8.6.2 The Cascade Semiconductor Laser = 405
• 8.6.3 The Blue-Green Semiconductor Diode Laser = 405
• 8.7 References = 406
• 9 Silicon Device Processing / Dim-Lee Kwong[Microelectronics Research Center, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, U.S.A.]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 409
• 9.1 Introduction = 412
• 9.2 Gettering = 412
• 9.2.1 Intrinsic Gettering = 413
• 9.2.2 Gettering by Hydrogen Annealing = 416
• 9.3 Device Isolation = 418
• 9.3.1 LOCOS-Based Isolation = 418
• 9.3.2 Advanced Isolation Techniques = 420
• 9.3.3 Silicon-on-Insulator = 425
• 9.4 Gate Dielectrics = 429
• 9.4.1 Preoxidation Cleaning = 430
• 9.4.2 Process Dependence of Gate Oxide Quality = 433
• 9.4.3 Chemically Modified Gate Oxides = 435
• 9.4.4 CVD and Stacked Oxides = 438
• 9.5 Shallow Junction Formation = 439
• 9.5.1 Ion Implantation = 440
• 9.5.2 Advanced Techniques for $$p^+$$-n Junction Formation = 442
• 9.5.2.1 Diffusion from Doped Deposited Layers = 443
• 9.5.2.2 Gas Immersion Laser Doping = 447
• 9.5.2.3 Gas Phase Diffusion = 447
• 9.5.2.4 Plasma Immersion Ion Implantation = 448
• 9.6 Metallization = 448
• 9.6.1 Gate Electrodes = 449
• 9.6.2 Contacts = 452
• 9.6.3 Interconnections = 456
• 9.6.4 Planarization for Multilevel Interconnections = 463
• 9.7 Cluster Tool Technology = 469
• 9.7.1 Advantages = 471
• 9.7.2 Rapid Thermal Processing = 472
• 9.7.2.1 In Situ Dry Cleaning = 473
• 9.7.2.2 Interface Engineering = 474
• 9.7.2.3 Gate Stack of Nitride and Oxynitride = 474
• 9.7.2.4 Deposition of DRAM Storage Dielectrics = 475
• 9.7.2.5 Selective Deposition Processes = 475
• 10 Compound Semiconductor Device Processing / John M. Parsey, Jr.[Motorola, Semiconductor Products Sector, Ⅲ-Ⅴ Device Development Laboratory, Tempe, AZ, U.S.A.]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 490
• 10.1 Introduction = 493
• 10.2 Doping Processes = 498
• 10.2.1 Ion Implantation = 504
• 10.2.2 Diffusion Methods = 511
• 10.2.3 Epitaxial Methods = 513
• 10.3 Isolation Methods = 515
• 10.3.1 Mesa Etching = 515
• 10.3.2 Ion Implantation Isolation = 517
• 10.3.3 Sidegating and Backgating = 522
• 10.4 Diffusion = 525
• 10.5 Etching Techniques = 531
• 10.5.1 Wet Etching = 532
• 10.5.2 Dry Etching = 537
• 10.6 Ohmic Contacts = 543
• 10.7 Schottky Barriers and Gates = 552
• 10.8 Annealing = 560
• 10.9 Dielectrics and Interlayer Isolation = 567
• 10.10 Resistors = 576
• 10.11 Metallization and Liftoff Processes = 581
• 10.11.1 Metallization = 584
• 10.11.2 Liftoff Processes = 587
• 10.12 Backside Processing and Die Separation = 590
• 10.12.1 Backside Processing = 592
• 10.12.2 Die Separation = 597
• 10.13 References = 598
• 11 Integrated Circuit Packaging / Daniel I. Amey[E. I. DuPont de Nemours Inc., Dupont Electronic Materials, Wilmington, DE, U.S.A.]
• List of Symbols and Abbreviations = 608
• 11.1 Introduction = 610
• 11.2 Package Functions = 610
• 11.3 Integrated Circuit Processing = 612
• 11.4 Die Attachment = 614
• 11.5 Microinterconnect Methods = 614
• 11.6 Wire Bonding = 615
• 11.7 Tape Automated Bonding(TAB) = 616
• 11.8 Flip Chip or Solder Bump = 618
• 11.9 Package Sealing = 619
• 11.10 Rent's Rule = 620
• 11.11 Thermal Management = 621
• 11.11.1 Thermal Resistance = 621
• 11.11.2 Cavity-Up／Down = 624
• 11.12 Package Types = 624
• 11.13 JEDEC = 624
• 11.13.1 Dual In-Line Package = 626
• 11.13.2 Flatpack = 626
• 11.13.3 Chip Carrier = 627
• 11.13.4 Small Outline Package = 628
• 11.13.5 Grid Array Packages = 628
• 11.13.6 Hybrid Circuit Packages = 630
• 11.14 Package Attachment = 631
• 11.15 Electrical Considerations = 633
• 11.16 Other Package Selection Considerations = 635
• 11.17 Cost = 636
• 11.18 Multichip Modules = 637
• 11.18.1 Introduction = 637
• 11.18.2 Multichip Packaging Considerations = 637
• 11.19 Change and Repair = 640
• 11.20 Change Bars = 641
• 11.21 Repair Links = 642
• 11.22 The Future = 644
• 11.23 References = 645
• 12 Interconnection Systems / Wulf Knausenberger[RD Hikual, via Thames, New Zealand Formerly of AT & T Bell Laboratories]
• List of Abbreviations = 650
• 12.1 Perspective = 652
• 12.2 Interconnection Technology Trends and Drivers = 655
• 12.2.1 Trends = 655
• 12.2.2 Interconnection Density as a Cost Driver = 658
• 12.2.2.1 Interconnection Capability and Cost Metric = 658
• 12.2.2.2 Interconnection Cost Comparisons = 659
• 12.2.3 Matching Capability and Need = 661
• 12.3 Interconnection Hierarchy = 661
• 12.4 Partitioning = 665
• 12.4.1 Introduction = 665
• 12.4.2 Partitioning Approaches = 666
• 12.4.2.1 Component-Oriented Partitioning = 666
• 12.4.2.2 Interconnection-Oriented Partitioning = 666
• 12.4.3 Interconnection Distribution Patterns = 668
• 12.4.3.1 Broadcast Interconnections = 668
• 12.4.3.2 Network Interconnections = 669
• 12.4.3.3 Status／Control Interconnections = 669
• 12.4.4 Ideal System Partitioning Approach = 669
• 12.5 Multichip Modules = 669
• 12.6 Printed Wiring Board(PWB) Technology = 671
• 12.6.1 Introduction = 671
• 12.6.2 Material Systems = 671
• 12.6.3 PWB Categories = 673
• 12.6.3.1 Rigid PWBs = 673
• 12.6.3.2 Discrete Wired Circuits = 673
• 12.6.3.3 Flexible PWBs = 673
• 12.6.4 PWB Production Processes = 674
• 12.6.4.1 Basic Processes = 674
• 12.6.4.2 Fabrication Sequences for Different PWB Types = 676
• 12.7 Future Directions = 677
• 12.7.1 Merging of Markets = 678
• 12.7.2 New Form of Consumer Services = 678
• 12.7.3 Evolution of Technology = 679
• 12.8 References = 680