리더십 연구의 정신역동적 접근 모색 = A study on leadership by the psychodynamic approac

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

The purpose of this study was to introduce psychodynamic approach in leadership research and to present research directions for future researchers. Psychodynamic assumes that a person’s thoughts and behaviors are influenced by the past experiences and unconscious motives or intentions. It is helpful to explain the impulses and motives that leaders have inside and serve as a basis for understanding of current events that leaders were involved at home and abroad, but have not been much spotlighted due to the negativity Freud has. Thus, in this study, psychodynamic was frist described and how unconsciousness, defense mechanisms, and transference could be used in terms of leadership research and development in practice along with research methodology.
We reviewed previous literature on Freudian psychoanalysis, psychodynamic, derailment, leadership development, and so on along with quantitative as well as qualitative methods that are drawing attention in the professional field. This study can make contributions by shedding lights on the psychodynamic that can help understand deeply and extensively about leader’s thoughts and behaviors, and by suggesting its methodologies and research topics.

국문 초록 (Abstract)

본 연구는 리더십 연구에 정신역동을 소개하고 그 연구 방향을 제시할 목적으로 이뤄졌다.
정신역동은 사람의 행동이 과거에 형성된 무의식과 방어기제에 일정 부분 영향을 받는다는 점을전제로 한다. 정신역동은 리더들의 내면 깊숙이 자리한 동기와 충동 등을 설명하기에 유용하다.
최근 국내외 일부 리더들이 보여준 비합리적이고 비이성적이며 때로는 파괴적인 행동을 설명할수 있는 토대를 제공하는 측면에서 의의가 있지만, 프로이트로 대변되는 부정성 때문에 국내 리더십 학계에서는 이렇다 할 조명을 받지는 못하고 있다. 이에 본 연구는 정신분석과 정신역동을구분하고, 정신역동 이론가들의 주장과 엮어서 리더십 연구 시사점을 모색하였다. 무의식, 방어기제 그리고 전이가 리더십 개발과 코칭, 리더십 디레일먼트와 비인격적 감독, 그리고 국내 경영자연구에 어떤 함의를 주는지 논의하였다. 본 연구는 리더십 연구에 또 다른 해석의 무대를 제공해줄 수 있는 정신역동을 조명했다는 데 의의가 있다. 또한, 그 방법론 및 주제 등을 구체화했다는점에서도 기여가 있다고 할 수 있겠다.

참고문헌 (Reference)

1 이병철, "호암자전" 중앙M&B 1986

2 럭키금성, "한번 믿으면 모두 맡겨라" 럭키금성 1993

3 정명원, "한국판 방어유형검사(Defense Style Questionnaire)개발을 위한 예비연구" 32 : 707-716, 1993

4 이맹희, "하고싶은 이야기" 청산 1993

5 허철부, "패러다임 전환의 커뮤니케이션에 대한 이건희 리더십과 한국일류에서 세계일류로의 삼성전자 대장정" 297-324, 2005

6 이후경, "집단정신치료 : 집단역학" 대한신경정신의학회 42 (42): 2003

7 정혜윤, "직장 내 괴롭힘 금지 법제화와 노동조합의 대응과제" (26) : 1-5, 2018

8 설성인, "자연 속에 영원히 잠들다…故 구본무 LG 회장 수목장"

9 이근후, "이화방어기제 검사 표준화연구" 30 : 582-592, 1991

10 정주영, "이땅에 태어나서" 솔 1998

11 구자경, "오직 이 길밖에 없다" 행림출판사 1992

12 박영숙, "연령에 따른 자아방어기제의 차이에 관한 연구" 16 (16): 133-143, 1993

13 정주영, "시련은 있어도 실패는 없다" 제삼기획 1991

14 김미숙, "성숙한 리더십을 위한 내러티브 코칭 유용성 연구" 4 : 33-54, 2015

15 이경은, "성격적 탈선 요인에 근거한 경영자들의 유형 분석, 성격 5요인 및 리더 행동과의 관계" 한국산업및조직심리학회 23 (23): 667-687, 2010

16 이건희, "생각 좀 하며 세상을 보자" 동아일보사 1997

17 박종혁, "상사 갑질이 일탈행위에 미치는 영향에 관한 연구: 최고경영진의 윤리적 리더십에 대한 시사점을 중심으로" 한국전문경영인학회 21 (21): 61-78, 2018

18 LG그룹, "비전을 향한 혁신의 여정 25년" LG회장실 홍보팀 1995

19 배건, "비인격적 감독이 구성원의 행동에 미치는 영향: 조직동일시의 매개효과" 한국경영교육학회 33 (33): 271-289, 2018

20 정세영, "미래는 만드는 것이다" 행림출판 2000

21 이맹희, "묻어둔 이야기" 청산 1993

22 차동옥, "리더십 연구의 최근 동향: CEO 리더십을 중심으로" 한국인사관리학회 29 (29): 179-227, 2005

23 김종석, "대통령의 성격유형과 리더십 스타일에 관한 사례 연구: 박정희･김영삼 대통령을 대상으로" 한국행정연구소 48 (48): 113-142, 2010

24 정몽준, "나의 도전 나의 열정: 정몽준의 인생과 세상 이야기" 김영사 2011

25 임창현, "국내 기업 임원의 리더십탈락에 영향을 미치는 행동특성 연구" 한국인적자원개발전략연구소 5 (5): 33-59, 2010

26 백기복, "계량역사학적 방법(historiometry)을이용한 리더십연구" 리더십학회 9 (9): 157-175, 2018

27 강준만, "갑과 을의 나라: 갑을관계는 대한민국을 어떻게 지배해왔는가" 인물과사상사 2017

28 우지영, "權是中의 號를 통해 본 삶의 지향과 처세관" 경남문화연구원 (59) : 73-94, 2018

29 조계원, "‘땅콩회항’ 사건에 나타난 세 가지 분노와 사회관계 지위 -권력의 불평등을 중심으로" 비판사회학회 (118) : 306-338, 2018

30 Plant, R. J., "William menninger and American psychoanalysis, 1946-48" 16 (16): 181-202, 2005

31 Gurdjian, P., "Why leadership-development programs fail" 1 (1): 121-126, 2014

32 Ready, D. A., "Why leadership-development efforts fail" 44 (44): 83-88, 2003

33 Van Velsor, E., "Why executives derail : Perspectives across time and cultures" 9 (9): 62-72, 1995

34 Heifetz, R. A., "When leadership spells danger" 61 (61): 33-37, 2004

35 Yoo, C. Y., "Unconscious processing of web advertising : Effects on implicit memory, attitude toward the brand, and consideration set" 22 (22): 2-18, 2008

36 Martin, N., "Unconscious mental processes in consumer choice : Toward a new model of consumer behavior" 18 (18): 483-505, 2011

37 Soon, C. S., "Unconscious determinants of free decisions in the human brain" 11 (11): 543-545, 2008

38 Levy, K. N., "Transference, transference interpretations, and transference-focused psychotherapies" 49 (49): 391-403, 2012

39 Connolly, M. B., "Transference patterns in the therapeutic relationship in supportive-expressive psychotherapy for depression" 10 (10): 356-372, 2000

40 Andersen, S. M., "Transference in social perception : The role of chronic accessibility in significant-other representations" 69 (69): 41-57, 1995

41 Andersen, S. M., "Transference in everyday experience : Implications of experimental research for relevant clinical phenomena" 2 (2): 81-120, 1998

42 Ward, G., "Towards Executive Change : A psychodynamic group coaching model for short executive programmes" 6 (6): 67-78, 2008

43 Kiefer, M., "Time course of conscious and unconscious semantic brain activation" 11 (11): 2401-2407, 2000

44 Freud, S., "Three contributions to the theory of sex (No. 7)" Nervous and Mental Disease Publishing Company 1920

45 Kahneman, D., "Thinking, fast and slow" Farrar, Straus and Giroux 2011

46 Kilburg, R. R., "The wisdom of coaching: Essential papers in consulting psychology for a world of change" American Psychological Association 185-205, 2007

47 Freud, S., "The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud" Macmillan 1964

48 Andersen, S. M., "The social-cognitive model of transference : Experiencing past relationships in the present" 7 (7): 109-115, 1998

49 Westen, D., "The scientific legacy of Sigmund Freud : Toward a psychodynamically informed psychological science" 124 : 333-371, 1998

50 Waldinger, R. J., "The same old song? Stability and change in relationship schemas from adolescent to young adulthood" 31 : 17-29, 2002

51 Loftus, E. F., "The reality of repressed memories" 48 (48): 518-537, 1993

52 Meissner, W. W., "The problem of self-disclosure in psychoanalysis" 50 (50): 827-867, 2002

53 Main, M., "The organized categories of infant, child, and adult attachment : Flexible vs. inflexible attention under attachment-related stress" 48 (48): 1055-1096, 2000

54 Whyte, W. H., "The organization man" Simon & Schuster 1956

55 Freud, S., "The neuro-psychoses of defense" 3 : 43-61, 1894

56 Tellides, C., "The manifestation of transference during early psychotherapy sessions" 8 (8): 85-92, 2008

57 Zaleznik, A., "The managerial mystique : restoring leadership in business" Harper & Row 1989

58 Barron, J. W., "The interface of psychoanalyzisis and psychology" American Psychological Association 1992

59 Shedler, J., "The illusion of mental health" 48 (48): 1117-1131, 1993

60 Fried, D., "The first empirical demonstration of transference in psychotherapy" 180 (180): 326-331, 1992

61 Freud, A., "The ego and the defense mechanisms. ff. Psycho" Verlag 126-, 1936

62 Driessen, E., "The efficacy of short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy for depression : a meta-analysis" 30 (30): 25-36, 2010

63 Shedler, J., "The efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy" 65 (65): 98-109, 2010

64 Williams, J. S., "The efficacy of executive coaching : An empirical investigation of two approaches using random assignment and a switching-replications design" 70 (70): 227-249, 2018

65 Ulberg, R., "The effects of the therapist's disengaged feelings on the in-session process in psychodynamic psychotherapy" 70 (70): 440-451, 2014

66 Collins, D. B., "The effectiveness of managerial leadership development programs : A meta-analysis of studies from 1982 to 2001" 15 (15): 217-248, 2004

67 Sagy, S., "The development of the sense of coherence : A retrospective study of early life experiences in the family" 51 (51): 155-166, 2000

68 Juni, S., "The defense mechanisms inventory : Theoretical and psychometric implications" 17 (17): 313-332, 1998

69 Paulhus, D. L., "The dark triad of personality : Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy" 36 : 556-568, 2002

70 Baron, L., "The coach-coachee relationship in executive coaching: A field study" 20 (20): 85-106, 2009

71 Popper, M., "The building blocks of leader development : A psychological conceptual framework" 28 (28): 664-684, 2007

72 Volmer, J., "The bright and dark sides of leaders' dark triad traits : Effects on subordinates' career success and well-being" 101 : 413-418, 2016

73 Murphy, S. E., "The benefits of a long-lens approach to leader development : Understanding the seeds of leadership" 22 (22): 459-470, 2011

74 Kets de Vries, M. F. K., "The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of the Psychology of Leadership, Change, and Organizational Development" John Wiley & Sons 65-88, 2013

75 Mosse, J., "The Unconscious at Work" Routledge 1-8, 2019

76 Training Industry, "The State of the Leadership Training Market"

77 Freud, S., "The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XII (1911-1913): The Case of Schreber, Papers on Technique and Other Works" 157-171, 1958

78 Kihlstrom, J., "The Psychological Unconscious : Found, Lost, and Regained" 47 (47): 788-791, 1992

79 Adler, A., "The Feeling of Inferiority and the Striving for Recognition" 20 (20): 1881-1886, 1927

80 Fulmer, R., "The Evolution of the Psychodynamic Approach and System" 10 (10): 1-6, 2018

81 Freud, A., "The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense" (30) : 1937

82 Cramer, P., "The Defense Mechanism Inventory : A review of research and discussion of the scales" 52 (52): 142-164, 1988

83 Furnham, A., "The Dark Triad of personality : A 10 year review" 7 (7): 199-216, 2013

84 Arnaud, G., "The Contribution of Psychoanalysis to Organization Studies and Management : An Overview" 33 (33): 1121-1135, 2012

85 Palmer, J. C., "The Cascading Effects of CEO Dark Triad Personality on Subordinate Behavior and Firm Performance : A Multilevel Theoretical Model" 45 (45): 143-180, 2020

86 Moss, J. A., "Testing the Relationship Between Interpersonal Political Skills, Altruism, Leadership Success and Effectiveness : A Multilevel Model" 11 (11): 155-174, 2010

87 Ehlers, W., "Testhandbuch[SBAK Manual]" PSZVerlag 1989

88 Isaacson, W., "Steve Jobs : The Exclusive Biography" Simon & Schuster 2011

89 Borgatta, E. F., "Some findings relevant to the great man theory of leadership" 19 (19): 755-759, 1954

90 Jaques, E., "Social-analysis and the Glacier Project" 17 (17): 361-375, 1964

91 Rangell, L., "Similarities and differences between psychoanalysis and dynamic psychotherapy" 2 (2): 734-744, 1954

92 Abbass, A., "Short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy for somatic disorders" 78 (78): 265-274, 2009

93 Chappell, S., "Shadow work for leadership development" 38 (38): 326-335, 2019

94 Singh, N., "Self-sacrifice and transformational leadership : mediating role of altruism" 29 (29): 261-274, 2008

95 Myers, L. B., "Recall of early experience and the repressive coping style" 103 (103): 288-292, 1994

96 Simonton, D. K., "Psychology, science, and history : An introduction to historiometry" Yale University Press 1990

97 Steinert, C., "Psychodynamic therapy : as efficacious as other empirically supported treatments? A meta-analysis testing equivalence of outcomes" 174 (174): 943-953, 2017

98 Wöller, W., "Psychodynamic psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood abuse-Principles for a treatment manual" 76 (76): 69-93, 2012

99 Abbass, A. A., "Psychodynamic psychotherapy for children and adolescents : A meta-analysis of short-term psychodynamic models" 52 (52): 863-875, 2013

100 Gabbard, G. O., "Psychodynamic psychiatry in clinical practice" American Psychiatric Publishing Inc 2014

101 Cabaniss, D. L., "Psychodynamic Psychotherapy : A clinical manual" John Wiley & Sons 2016

102 Zaleznik, A., "Power and the corporate mind" Houghton Mifflin 1975

103 Luthans, F., "Positive psychological capital : Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction" 60 (60): 541-572, 2007

104 Millon, T., "Personality disorders in modern life" John Wiley & Sons 2012

105 Pundt, A., "Personal need for structure as a boundary condition for humor in leadership" 38 (38): 87-107, 2017

106 Kets de Vries, M. K., "Organizations on the Couch : A clinical perspective on organizational dynamics" 22 (22): 183-200, 2004

107 Klein, M., "On the criteria for the termination of a psycho-analysis" 31 : 78-80, 1950

108 McCall, M. W., "Off the track: Why and how successful executives get derailed" Center for Creative Leadership 1983

109 Clair, M., "Object relations and self psychology: An introduction" Thomson Brooks/Cole Publishing Co 1996

110 Greenwald, A. G., "New Look 3 : Unconscious cognition reclaimed" 47 (47): 766-779, 1992

111 Levy, S. T., "Neutrality, interpretation, and therapeutic intent" 40 (40): 989-1011, 1992

112 Anderson, M. C., "Neural systems underlying the suppression of unwanted memories" 303 (303): 232-235, 2004

113 Westen, D., "Neural bases of motivated reasoning : An fMRI study of emotional constraints on partisan political judgment in the 2004 US presidential election" 18 (18): 1947-1958, 2006

114 Maccoby, M., "Narcissistic leaders" 78 (78): 69-77, 2000

115 Grijalva, E., "Narcissism and leadership : A meta-analytic review of linear and nonlinear relationships" 68 (68): 1-47, 2015

116 Thomas, D., "Narcissism : Behind the mask" The Book Guild 2010

117 Gutheil, T. G., "Misuses and misunderstandings of boundary theory in clinical and regulatory settings" 155 (155): 409-414, 1998

118 Andersen, S. M., "Mental representations of the self, significant others, and nonsignificant others : Structure and processing of private and public aspects" 75 (75): 845-861, 1998

119 Levinson, H., "Men, Management, and Mental Health" Harvard University Press 1962

120 Simon, H. A., "Making management decisions : The role of intuition and emotion" 1 (1): 57-64, 1987

121 Leichsenring, F., "Long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy in complex mental disorders : update of a meta-analysis" 199 (199): 15-22, 2011

122 Kets de Vries, M., "Leadership: Theory and Practice" Sage 363-396, 2016

123 Lacerenza, C. N., "Leadership training design, delivery, and implementation : A meta-analysis" 102 (102): 1686-1718, 2017

124 Ashkenas, R., "Leadership development should focus on experiments" 2-4, 2016

125 Alldredge, M., "Leadership development at 3M : New process, new techniques, new growth" 26 (26): 45-55, 2003

126 Kaiser, R. B., "Leadership development : The failure of an industry and the opportunity for consulting psychologists" 65 (65): 294-302, 2013

127 Furtner, M. R., "Leader development deconstructed" Springer 75-99, 2017

128 Liu, Z., "Leader development begins at home : Overparenting harms adolescent leader emergence" 104 (104): 1226-1242, 2019

129 임승환, "LCSI와 이화방어기제간의 상관관계 연구" 한국상담학회 5 (5): 61-77, 2004

130 Loftus, E. F., "Is the unconscious smart or dumb?" 47 (47): 761-765, 1992

131 Issack, T. S., "Intuition : An ignored dimension of management" 3 (3): 917-922, 1978

132 Day, D. V., "Integrative perspectives on longitudinal investigations of leader development : From childhood through adulthood" 22 (22): 561-571, 2011

133 Epstein, S., "Integration of the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious" 49 (49): 709-724, 1994

134 Epitropaki, O., "Implicit leadership theories in applied settings : Factor structure, generalizability and stability over time" 89 : 293-310, 2004

135 Offerman, L. R., "Implicit leadership theories : Content, structure and generalizability" 5 : 43-58, 1994

136 Wright, J., "Humanistic/object relations counseling : A personal integration" 21 (21): 39-54, 1993

137 Hogan, R., "Hogan development survey manual"

138 Hogan, R., "Hogan Development Survey manual"

139 Peterson, C., "Health and Optimism" The Free Press 1991

140 Kets de Vries, M. K., "Handbook of leadership theory and practice" Harvard Business Press 183-222, 2010

141 Cioffi, F., "Freud and the idea of a pseudo-science" 508-515, 1970

142 Hentschel, U., "Fragebogen zu Konfliktbewdltigungsstrategien-FKBS (Conflict-solving strategies inventory-FKBS)" Beltz 1998

143 Uhl-Bien, M., "Followership theory : A review and research agenda" 25 : 83-104, 2014

144 Hjelle, L. A., "Explanatory style, dispositional optimism, and reported parental behavior" 157 (157): 489-499, 1996

145 Lombardo, M. M., "Explanations of success and derailment in upper-level management positions" 2 (2): 199-216, 1988

146 Andersen, S. M., "Experiments on transference in interpersonal relations : Implications for treatment" 49 (49): 370-383, 2012

147 Ganster, D. C., "Executive job demands : Suggestions from a stress and decision-making perspective" 30 (30): 492-502, 2005

148 Berman, W. H., "Executive coaching and consulting : "Different strokes for different folks"" 37 (37): 244-253, 2006

149 Bozer, G., "Executive coaching : Does coach-coachee matching based on similarity really matter?" 67 (67): 218-233, 2015

150 Feldman, D. C., "Executive coaching : A review and agenda for future research" 31 (31): 829-848, 2005

151 Sandler, C., "Executive coaching : A psychodynamic approach" McGraw-Hill Education 2011

152 Adler, K. A., "Essays in individual psychology: contemporary application of Alfred Adler's theories (Vol. 180)" Grove Press 1959

153 김화영, "Entrepreneurship, 기업가 지향성 및 기업가 활동에 대한 개념적 고찰: 현대중공업의 창업가 정주영을 중심으로" 한국경영학회 21 (21): 1-46, 2017

154 Bond, M., "Empirical studies of ego mechanisms of defense" American Psychiatric Press 146-152, 1984

155 Leichsenring, F., "Effectiveness of long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy : A meta-analysis" 300 (300): 1551-1565, 2008

156 Weber, L., "Dismissing a tarnished CEO? Psychological mechanisms and unconscious biases in the board’s evaluation" 59 (59): 22-41, 2017

157 Schmit, M. J., "Development of a global measure of personality" 53 (53): 153-193, 2000

158 Bass, B. M., "Developing Transformational Leadership : 1992 and Beyond" 14 (14): 21-27, 1990

159 Hentschel, U., "Defense mechanisms: Theoretical, research and clinical perspectives" Elsevier Science Ltd. 3-41, 2004

160 Boldrini, T., "Defense mechanisms in adolescents at high risk of developing psychosis : an empirical investigation" 23 (23): 4-15, 2020

161 Meehl, P. E., "Credentialed persons, credentialed knowledge" 4 (4): 91-98, 1997

162 Jung, C. G., "Contributions to analytical psychology" Harcourt 1928

163 Barber, J. P., "Consistency of interpersonal themes in narratives about relationships" 12 (12): 139-159, 2002

164 Tepper, B. J., "Consequences of abusive supervision" 43 : 178-190, 2000

165 Wolitzky, D. L., "Comprehensive handbook of personality and psychopathology, Vol. 1 Personality and Everyday Functioning" John Wiley & Sons Inc. 65-95, 2006

166 Kets de Vries, M. F., "Coaching the toxic leader" 92 (92): 100-109, 2014

167 Levy, K., "Clinical psychology: Assessment, treatment and research" 181-214, 2009

168 Avolio, B. J., "Charismatic leadership: The elusive factor in organizational effectiveness" Jossey-Bass 276-308, 1988

169 Tourish, D., "Charismatic leadership and corporate cultism at Enron : The elimination of dissent, the promotion of conformity and organizational collapse" 1 (1): 455-480, 2005

170 Blatt, S. J., "Change in object and self-representations in long-term, intensive, inpatient treatment of seriously disturbed adolescents and young adults" 59 (59): 82-107, 1996

171 Blackman, A., "Challenges for the theory and practice of business coaching : A systematic review of empirical evidence" 15 (15): 459-486, 2016

172 Morrison, A. M., "Breaking The Glass Ceiling : Can Women Reach The Top Of America's Largest corporations?" Pearson Education 1987

173 Kernberg, O. F., "Borderline conditions and pathological narcissism" Rowman &Littlefield 1985

174 Valcour, M., "Beating burnout" 94 (94): 98-101, 2016

175 Popper, M., "Back to basics : Applying a parenting perspective to transformational leadership" 14 (14): 41-65, 2003

176 Hogan, R., "Assessing leadership : A view from the dark side" 9 (9): 40-51, 2001

177 Stentz, J. E., "Applying mixed methods to leadership research : A review of current practices" 23 (23): 1173-1183, 2012

178 Gleser, G. C., "An objective instrument for measuring defense mechanisms" 33 (33): 51-60, 1969

179 Taylor, A., "An investigation of champion-driven leadership processes" 22 (22): 412-433, 2011

180 Shapiro, S., "An experimental method for studying unconscious perception in a marketing context" 16 (16): 459-477, 1999

181 Bond, M., "An empirical study of defensive styles : The Defense Style Questionnaire" 127-158, 1992

182 Bloch, A. L., "An empirical study of defense mechanisms in dysthymia" 150 : 1194-1194, 1993

183 Glassman, N. S., "Activating transference without consciousness : Using significant-other representations to go beyond what is subliminally given" 77 (77): 1146-1162, 1999

184 Tepper, B. J., "Abusive supervision" 4 : 123-152, 2017

185 Gerson, M. J., "APA handbooks in psychology. APA handbook of contemporary family psychology: Foundations, methods, and contemporary issues across the lifespan" American Psychological Association 21-35, 2019

186 Keefe, J. R., "A meta-analytic review of psychodynamic therapies for anxiety disorders" 34 (34): 309-323, 2014

187 O'Boyle, E. H., "A meta-analysis of the Dark Triad and work behavior : A social exchange perspective" 97 (97): 557-579, 2012

188 Freud, S., "A general introduction to psychoanalysis" Createspace Independent Publishing Platform 1920

189 Avolio, B. J., "A funny thing happened on the way to the bottom line : Humor as a moderator of leadership style effects" 42 (42): 219-227, 1999

190 Dijksterhuis, A., "A case for thinking without consciousness" 11 (11): 117-132, 2016

191 Alimo-Metcalfe, B., "360 degree feedback and leadership development" 6 (6): 35-44, 1998