Motivation to learn : from theory to practice

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• Preface = xi
• 1 Profiles of Motivational Problems = 1
• Defensive Dick = 1
• Hopeless Hannah = 2
• Safe Sally = 4
• Satisfied Sam = 5
• Anxious Amy = 7
• Conclusion = 8
• 2 Defining Achievement Motivation = 9
• Behavioral Indices of Motivational Problems = 10
• Identifying Motivation Problems = 12
• Grade Differences in Motivational Problems = 13
• Students' Goals = 14
• Task/Learning/Mastery Goals versus Ego/Performance Goals = 15
• Assessing Students' Goals = 19
• Parents' Goals = 20
• Teacher Effects on Students' Goals = 21
• Values = 22
• Conclusion = 24
• 3 Reinforcement Theory = 25
• The Theory = 25
• Implications for Educational Practice = 28
• Token Economies = 30
• Problems with Reward and Punishment = 33
• Finding an Effective Reinforcer = 33
• Availability of Positive Reinforcers = 34
• Application of Reinforcers = 36
• Negative Effects on Behavior = 37
• Short-Lived Effectiveness = 37
• Effects of Punishment = 39
• Summary = 40
• 4 Social Cognitive Theory = 43
• Cognitive Behavior Modification = 46
• Self-Recording = 47
• Self-Reinforcement = 49
• Self-Instruction = 51
• Summary = 52
• Praise = 52
• Conclusion = 57
• 5 Intrinsic Motivation = 59
• Competence Motivation = 60
• Principle of Optimal Challenge = 61
• Emotional Reactions to Mastery = 62
• Effects of the Social Environment = 63
• Curiosity = 65
• Autonomy = 66
• Link Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation = 67
• Controlling versus Information Function of Rewards = 69
• Effects of Rewards Conveying Information = 71
• Summary = 72
• Internalized Motivation = 72
• Individual Differences in Intrinsic and Internalized Motivation = 74
• Measures of Individual Differences in Motivation = 75
• Age-Related Changes = 79
• Intrinsic Motivation and Classroom Learning = 80
• Advantages of Intrinsic Motivation = 81
• Sustaining Desirable Behavior = 81
• Effects on Conceptual Understanding and Creativity = 82
• Task-Orientation = 83
• Pleasure = 83
• 6 Maximizing Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom = 85
• Tasks = 86
• Difficulty Level = 86
• Complexity, Novelty, and Surprise = 91
• Summary = 93
• Personal Meaningfulness of Tasks = 94
• Presentation of Tasks = 97
• More Than Fun = 98
• Evaluation = 99
• Help = 102
• Extrinsic Rewards = 104
• Autonomy = 106
• Approaches to Fostering Autonomy and Perceptions of Control = 108
• DeCharms' Personal Causation Approach = 110
• The Adaptive-Learning Environment Model = 111
• Student Choice and "Open Classrooms" = 112
• The Social Context = 113
• Summary = 114
• 7 From Reinforcement to Cognition = 117
• Atkinson's Expectancy X Value Theory = 118
• Rotter's Social Learning Theory = 121
• Weisz' Contingency and Competence Model = 123
• Measuring LOC = 124
• Weiner's Attribution Theory = 126
• Measurement = 128
• Antecedents to Attributions = 129
• Attribution Dispositions = 130
• Consequences of Attributions = 132
• Summary = 138
• 8 Perceptions of Ability = 141
• "Ability" as Skill Versus, Trait = 142
• Relationship Between Effort and Ability = 143
• Self-Efficacy in Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory = 145
• Sources of Self-Efficacy Judgments = 145
• Consequences of Self-Efficacy = 147
• Covington's Self-Worth Theory = 148
• Avoiding the Negative Implications of Failure for Ability = 150
• Success Without Learning = 153
• Age-Related Changes in Perceptions of Ability = 155
• Classroom Practice Effects = 158
• Frame of Reference = 159
• Measuring Perceptions of Ability = 161
• Summary = 162
• 9 Achievement Anxiety = 165
• Measuring Anxiety = 167
• Anxiety and Achievement = 168
• Preprocessing and Processing = 169
• Output = 170
• Summary = 171
• Origins of Achievement Anxiety = 171
• Math Anxiety = 173
• Minimizing the Negative Effects of Anxiety = 175
• Preprocessing = 175
• Processing and Output = 176
• Summary = 179
• 10 Maintaining Positive Achievement-Related Beliefs = 181
• Difficulty Level of Tasks = 183
• Proximal Goals = 184
• Reactions to Help-Seeking = 185
• Summary = 186
• Teacher Statements = 186
• Classroom Structure = 189
• Task Differentiation = 189
• Whole-Class Instruction = 192
• Evaluation = 193
• Criteria for Evaluation = 194
• Public versus Private Evaluation = 195
• Treatment of Errors = 197
• Mastery-Learning Programs = 199
• Cooperative Incentive Structures = 202
• Learning to Fail = 206
• Summary = 207
• 11 Communicating Expectations = 209
• Teacher Behavior Toward High- and Low-Expectation Students = 211
• Emotional Displays = 212
• Praise = 214
• Helping = 215
• Ability Grouping and Tracking = 217
• Value of Low Versus High Expectations = 218
• Gender Differences in Teachers' Expectations = 219
• Students' Perceptions of Teacher Expectations = 221
• Avoiding the Negative Effects of Expectations = 222
• 12 Real Students = 227
• References = 235
• Appendix 2-A Identifying Motivation Problems = 273
• Instructions = 273
• Scoring = 273
• Appendix 3-A External Reinforcement = 275
• Instructions = 275
• Appendix 4-A Observations of Teachers' Use of Praise = 279
• Instructions = 279
• Appendix 6-A Rating of the Intrinsic Value of Tasks = 281
• Instructions = 281
• Appendix 7-A Teacher Ratings of Student Helplessness = 283
• Instructions = 283
• Author Index = 284
• Subject Index = 290