9/11의 (탈)안보화와 미국패권: 대테러전쟁의 구성과 해체 = (De)Securitization of 9/11 and American Hegemony: The Rise and Demise of the Global War on Terror

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

This article traces the rise and demise of America's global war on terror from 9/11 through the Iraq War and up to the present of the economic meltdown, by employing an expanded version of securitization theory that emphasizes contestation among speakers and the role of audience and bureaucrats in the success of securitization. Codifying 9/11 as a harbinger of catastrophic terror combining both extreme anti-American, Western ideology and dangerous technology of weapons of mass destruction, the Bush administration launched a new, global, preventive, and ideological war on terror to be waged by military transformation. The Iraq War resulted from and was to contradict the Bush administration's securitization of 9/11 as catastrophic terrorism: no WMD was found and Iraq became a failed state in an international civil war by America's awesome power of military transformation. As the international society criticized America's unilateralism and unlawful war on terror such as torture in secret detention centers in the Iraq War, the Bush administration shifted the focus of the global war on terror to nation-building and democracy promotion, and the American military developed a new, counter-insurgency strategy. The global war on terror had undergone a more radical change, as domestic support for the Iraq War collapsed in the wake of the 2008 economic meltdown. Securitizing the meltdown as an existential threats to American hegemony, the Obama administration discarded and reduced the global war on terror to war to disrupt-dismantle-defeat Al-Qaeda.

국문 초록 (Abstract)

기존의 안보화 이론은 담화행위를 통해 새로운 안보 위협이 설정되는 데에 주목해왔다. 담화행위에 대한 강조를 안보화의 성공적인 제도화로 확장시키면, 실존적 위협의 존재와 그에 대한 제도적 대응을 둘러싼 다양한 화자들의 안보화 담론의 경합, 이를 수용 혹은 거부하는 청중들, 그리고 제도화를 관장하는 관료들 사이의 정치적 투쟁을 조명할 수 있다. 이러한 틀에서 이 글은 9/11 이후 미국의 대테러전쟁이 진화하는 과정을 추적한다. 9/11 직후 선과 악의 대립으로 규정되어, 지구적 테러조직을 주적으로 군사변환의 첨단무기와 군사적 일방주의에 의해 수행되던 대테러전쟁은, 이라크 전후처리의 ‘고난’을 거치면서 대테러작전과 대반란작전이 결합된 초국적 테러 네트워크, 폭력적 급진주의와의 대결로 축소되더니, 오바마정부에 들어서는 알카에다의 분열, 해체, 격퇴의 구체적인 전쟁으로 해체되어버렸다. 이 과정은 9/11 테러나 이라크 전후처리의 난관이라는 객관적 현실을 배경으로 하는 것이지만, 그 현실 자체에 의해 결정된 것은 아니다. 전통적으로 치안의 대상인 테러에 대해서 전쟁을 선포한 것은 9/11에서 재앙적 테러의 위협을 설정하고, 이의 예방을 위해서 모든 수단을 동원해야 한다는 신보수주의와 절대안보, 예방전쟁의 논리가 작동한 결과였다. 한편, 대테러전쟁의 축소와 해체는 미국의 도덕적 리더십에 대한 국내외의 (청중의) 비판, 현재의 비정규전에 주력하기 보다는 미국패권의 다양한 군사적 위협에 대비하고자 하는 국방부의 제도적 이해, 경제위기 자체를 안보 위협으로 설정하며 미국 패권의 재건을 도모하는 오바마 정부의 국가안보전략에 의한 것이었다.

참고문헌 (Reference)

1 이혜정, "패권의 굴레: 북미갈등과 한반도의 평화" 6 (6): 247-302, 2003

2 민병원, "탈냉전기 안보개념의 확대와 네트워크 패러다임" 국가안전보장문제연구소 50 (50): 23-56, 2007

3 이혜정, "오바마의 전쟁: 미국의 경제위기와 대테러전쟁의 해체" 21세기정치학회 20 (20): 249-271, 2010

4 이근욱, "미래의 전쟁과 전쟁의 미래:이라크 전쟁에서 나타난 군사혁신의 두 가지 측면" 신아시아연구소 17 (17): 137-161, 2010

5 마상윤, "미국의 대외정책과 민주주의 전파: 동기와 딜레마" 세종연구소 11 (11): 41-68, 2005

6 Buzan, Barry, "Will the 'Global War on Terrorism' be the New Cold War" 82 (82): 1101-1118, 2006

7 Jervis, Robert, "Why the Bush Doctrine Cannot be Sustained" 120 (120): 351-377, 2005

8 Kim, Sunghan, "When security met politics: desecuritization of North Korean threats by South Korea's Kim Dae-jung government" Oxford Univ Press 11 (11): 25-55, 2011

9 Howard, Michael, "What's in a Name?: How to Fight Terrorism" 81 (81): 8-13, 2002

10 Nexon, Daniel H., "What's at Stake in the American Empire Debate" 101 (101): 253-272, 2007

11 Myers, Richard B., "Washington Recasts Terror War as 'Struggle'" 26 : 2005

12 Rodin, David, "War, Torture, and Terrorism: Ethics and War in the 21st Century" Blackwell 2007

13 U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs, "War Powers, United States Operations in Libya, and Related Legislation"

14 The Pew Research Center, "Voters Liked Campaign 2004, But Too Much 'Mud-Slinging'" Washington, D.C: Pew Research Center 2004

15 Der Derian, James, "Virtuous War: Mapping the Military-Industrial-Media -Entertainment-Network" Routledge 2009

16 Wohlforth, William C., "Unipolarity, Status Competition, and Great Power War" 61 (61): 28-57, 2009

17 Rumsfeld, Donald H, "Transforming the Military" 81 (81): 20-32, 2002

18 Clark,Ian, "Towards an English School Theory of Hegemony" 15 (15): 203-228, 2009

19 Huffington, Ariana, "Third World America: How Our Politicians Are Abandoning the Middle Class and Betraying the American Dream" Crown 2010

20 Wight, Colin, "Theorising Terrorism: The State, Structure and History" 23 (23): 99-106, 2009

21 Ninkovich, Frank A, "The Wilsonian Century: U.S. Foreign Policy Since 1900" University Press of Chicago 1900

22 Layne, Christopher, "The Waning of U.S. Hegemony—Myth or Reality?: A Review Essay" 34 (34): 147-172, 2009

23 Foot,Rosemary, "The United Nations, Counter Terrorism, and Human Rights: Institutional Adaptation and Embedded Ideas" (29) : 489-514, 2007

24 Sewall, Sarah, "The U.S. Army/Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual" University of Chicago Press 2006

25 Zelikow, Philip, "The Transformation of National Security: Five Redefinitions" 71 : 17-28, 2003

26 Balzacq, Thierry, "The Three Faces of Securitization: Political Agency, Audience and Context" 11 (11): 171-201, 2005

27 Rengger, Nicholas, "The State of war" 84 (84): 891-901, 2008

28 Monten, Janathan, "The Roots of the Bush Doctrine: Power, Nationalism, and Democracy Promotion in U.S. Strategy" 29 (29): 112-156, 2005

29 Birdsall, Nancy, "The Post-Washington Consensus: Development After the Crisis" 90 (90): 45-53, 2011

30 The White House, "The National Security Strategy of the United States of America" Washington, D.C: The White House 2006

31 The White House, "The National Security Strategy of the United States of America" Washington, D.C: The White House 2010

32 The White House, "The National Security Strategy of the United States of America" Washington, D.C: The White House 2002

33 The National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform, "The Moment of Truth" The White House 2010

34 Berger, Mart T., "The Long War: Insurgency, Counterinsurgency and Collapsing States" 28 (28): 197-215, 2007

35 Nye, Joseph S., "The Limits of American Power" 117 (117): 545-559, 2002

36 Baker, James A, "The Iraq Study Group Report" United States Institute of Peace. 2006

37 Mullen, Mike, "The Hill - Tribute to the Troops, As Delivered by Adm. Mike Mullen, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Washington Court Hotel, Washington, D.C"

38 Nye, Joseph S., "The Future of American Power" 89 (89): 2-12, 2010

39 이혜정, "The Bush Doctrine: A Critical Appraisal" 한국국제정치학회 43 (43): 31-48, 2003

40 Schmidt, Brian C, "The Bush Doctrine and the Iraq War: Neoconservatives vs. Realists" 17 (17): 191-220, 2008

41 Lafeber, Walter, "The Bush Doctrine" 26 (26): 543-558, 2002

42 Kaufman, Stuart, "The Balance of Power in World History. Houndmills, Basingstoke" Palgrave Macmillan 2007

43 Roberts, Adam, "The 'War on Terror' in Historical Perspective.”" 47 (47): 101-130, 2005

44 Tilly, Charles, "Terror, Terrorism, Terrorists" 22 (22): 5-13, 2004

45 Bush, George W., "Statement by His Excellency Mr. George W. Bush, President of the United States of America, Address to the United Nations General Assembly"

46 Bremmer, Ian, "State Capitalism Comes of Age: The End of the Free Market" 88 (88): 40-55, 2009

47 Krasner, Stephen D, "Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy" Princeton University Press 1999

48 Paul, T. V, "Soft Balancing in the Age of U.S. Primacy" 30 (30): 46-71, 2005

49 Pape, Robert A., "Soft Balancing against the United States" 30 (30): 7-45, 2005

50 Dunne, Tim, "Society and Hierarchy in International Relations" 17 (17): 303-320, 2003

51 Krasner, Stephen D, "Sharing Sovereignty: New Institutions for Collapsed and Failing States" 29 (29): 85-120, 2004

52 Buzan, Barry, "Security: A New Framework for Analysis" Lynne Rienner 1998

53 McDonald, Matt, "Securitization and the Construction of Security" 14 (14): 563-587, 2008

54 The White House, "Remarks by the President on the Way Forward in Afghanistan"

55 Department of Defense, "Quadrennial Defense Review" Department of Defense 2001

56 Department of Defense, "Quadrennial Defense Review" Department of Defense 2010

57 Department of Defense, "Quadrennial Defense Review" Department of Defense 2006

58 The Pew Research Center, "Public Cheers Democratic Victory" Washington, D.C: Pew Research Center 2006

59 Davis, John W., "Presidential Policies and the Road to the Second Iraq War: From Forty One to Forty Three" Ashgate 2006

60 Rumsfeld, Donald H, "Prepared Testimony of U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld before the House and Senate Armed Services Committees regarding Iraq"

61 Gelb, Leslie H., "Power Rules: How Common Sense Can Rescue American Foriegn Policy" Harber Perennial 2009

62 Bjork, Kjell, "Overcoming Dilemmas Created by the 21st Century Mercenaries: Conceptualizing the Use of Private Security Companies in Iraq" 26 (26): 777-796, 2005

63 Mueller, John, "Overblown: How Politicians and the Terrorism Industry Inflate National Security Threats, and Why We Believe Them" Free Press 2006

64 Power, Samantha, "Our War on Terror" 29 : 2007

65 Burgos, Russell A., "Origins of Regime Change: "Ideapolitik" on the Long Road to Baghdad" 17 (17): 221-256, 2008

66 The United States Commission on National Security/21st Century, "New World Coming: American Security in the 21st Century" Washington, D.C: The United States Commission on National Security/21st Century 1999

67 Perl, Raphael F., "National Strategy for Combating Terrorism: Background and Issues for Congress" Congressional Research Service 2007

68 The White House, "National Strategy for Combating Terrorism" Washington, D.C: The White House 2006

69 The White House, "National Strategy for Combating Terrorism" Washington, D.C: The White House 2003

70 Department of Defense, "National Defense Strategy" Department of Defense 2008

71 Walzer, Michael, "Mercenary Impulse" 12 : 20-21, 2008

72 Daase, Christopher, "Knowns and Unknowns in the ‘War on Terror’: Uncertainty and the Political Construction of Danger" 38 (38): 411-434, 2007

73 Rumsfeld, Donald H, "Known and Unknown" Sentinel 2011

74 Crawford, Neta C., "Just War Theory and the U.S. Counterterror War" 1 (1): 5-25, 2003

75 Romaniuk, Peter, "Institutions as Swords and Shields: Multilateral Counter-Terrorism since 9/11" 36 (36): 591-613, 2010

76 Isikoff, Michael, "Hubris: The Inside Story of Spin, Scandal, and the Selling Robert" Knopf 2003

77 The Pew Research Center, "House Voting Intentions Knotted, National Trend Not Apparent" Washington, D.C: Pew Research Center 2002

78 The Pew Research Center, "High Marks for the Campaign, a High Bar for Obama" Washington, D.C: Pew Research Center 2008

79 Brooks, Stephen G, "Hard Times for Soft Balancing" 30 (30): 72-108, 2005

80 Mueller, John, "Harbinger or Aberration? A 9/11 Provocation" 69 : 45-50, 2002

81 Aradau, Claudia, "Governing Terrorism Through Risk: Taking Precautions, (un)Knowing the Future" 13 (13): 89-115, 2007

82 Dalby, Simon, "Geopolitics, the Revolution in Military Affairs and the Bush Doctrine" (46) : 234-252, 2009

83 The Pew Research Center, "GOP Likely to Recapture Control of House" Washington, D.C: Pew Research Center 2010

84 Sepp, Kevin I., "From 'Shock and Awe' to 'Hearts and Minds': The Fall and Rise of US Counterinsurgency Capability in Iraq" 28 (28): 217-230, 2007

85 Krebs, Ronald R, "Fixing the meaning of 9/11: Hegemony, Coercion, and the Road to war in Iraq" 16 (16): 409-451, 2007

86 Boyle, Michael, "Do Counterterrorism and Counterinsurgency Go Together" 86 (86): 333-353, 2010

87 Fisher, Louis, "Deciding on War Against Iraq: Institutional Failures" 118 (118): 389-410, 2003

88 Kupchan, Charles, "Dead Center: The Demise of Liberal Internationalism in the United States" 32 (32): 7-44, 2007

89 Ferguson, Niall, "Complexity and Collapse" 89 (89): 18-32, 2010

90 Ferguson, Niall, "Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the American Empire" Penguin 2004

91 Garcia, Michael John, "Closing the Guantanamo Detention Center: Legal Issues" Congressional Research Service 2011

92 Brownlee, Jason, "Can America Nation-Build" 59 : 314-340, 2007

93 Johnson, Chalmers, "Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire" Holt 2004

94 Paul, T. V., "Balance of Power: Theory and Practice in the 21st Century" Stanford University Press 2004

95 Ritholtz, Barry, "Bailout Nation, with New Post-Crisis Update: How Greed and Easy Money Corrupted Wall Street and Shook the World Economy" Wiley 2010

96 Walzer, Michael, "Arguing about War" Yale University Press 2004

97 Mearsheimer, John, "An Unnecessary War" 134 : 50-59, 2003

98 Allin, Dana H, "American Predicament" 46 (46): 7-30, 2004

99 Kennedy, Paul, "American Power is on the Wane" 14 : 2009

100 Cox, Michael, "American Democracy Promotion: Impulses, Strategies, and Impacts" Oxford University Press 2000

101 Dobbins, James, "America's Role in Nation-Building: From Germany to Iraq" Rand 2003

102 Smith, Tony, "America's Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy in the Twentieth Century" Princeton University Press 1994

103 Desch, Michael C., "America's Liberal Illiberalism: The Ideological Origins of Overreaction in U.S. Foreign Policy" 32 (32): 7-43, 2007

104 Kurth, James, "America's Grand Strategy: A Pattern of History" 43 : 3-19, 1996

105 The White House, "A New Strategy for Afghanistan and Pakistan"

106 Rumsfeld, Donald H, "A New Kind of War" 27 : 2001

107 Gaddis, John Lewis, "A Grand Strategy" (133) : 50-57, 2002

108 Gates, Robert M., "A Balanced Strategy" 88 (88): 28-40, 2009

109 이수형, "9 ․ 11 뉴욕 테러와 21세기 국제분쟁의 새로운 유형: 제4세대전쟁, 네트전, 비대칭전 쟁" (19) : 135-152, 2003

110 Leonard, Tom, "'War on Terror' Rebranded as 'Overseas Contingency Operations'" 25 : 2009