Research in psychology : methods and design

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• CHAPTER 1 Scientific Thinking in Psychology = 1
• Why Take This Course? = 3
• Ways of Knowing = 5
• Tenacity = 6
• Authority = 6
• Discourse and Logic = 7
• Experience = 7
• The Ways of Knowing and Science = 8
• Attributes of Scientific Thinking in Psychology = 9
• Determinism = 9
• Objectivity = 10
• Data-Driven = 11
• Box 1.1 ORIGINS - A Taste of Introspection = 12
• Empirical Questions = 13
• Psychological Science and Pseudoscience = 14
• Recognizing Pseudoscience = 15
• Associates with True Science = 16
• Box 1.2 CLASSIC STUDIES - Disproving Phrenology = 17
• Relies on Anecdotal Evidence = 20
• Sidesteps Disproof = 20
• Reduces Complexity to Simplicity = 21
• The Goals of Research in Psychology = 21
• Describing Behavior = 22
• Predicting Behavior = 22
• Explaining Behavior = 22
• Controlling Behavior = 23
• A Passion for Research in Psychology(Part Ⅰ) = 23
• Eleanor Gibson = 24
• B. F. Skinner = 26
• CHAPTER 2 Ethics in Psychological Research = 31
• Developing the APA Code of Ethics = 32
• Box 2.1 CLASSIC STUDIES - Scaring Little Albert = 33
• Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans = 37
• Planning the Study = 37
• Ensuring That Participants Are Volunteers = 40
• Box 2.2 ETHICS - Informed Consent (?) in Biomedical Research = 45
• Treating Participants Well = 46
• Ethical Guidelines for Research with Animals = 50
• The Issue of Animal Rights = 50
• Box 2.3 ORIGINS - Antivivisection and the APA = 51
• Using Animals in Psychological Research = 53
• The APA Code for Animal Research = 55
• Caring for the Animals = 55
• Justifying the Study = 55
• Using Animals for Educational Purposes = 56
• Scientific Fraud = 56
• Data Falsification = 57
• CHAPTER 3 Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology = 63
• Varieties of Psychological Research = 65
• Basic versus Applied Research = 65
• The Setting : Laboratory versus Field Research = 67
• Asking Empirical Questions = 69
• Box 3.1 ETHICS - A Matter of Privacy = 70
• Operational Definitions = 71
• Developing Research from Observations of Behavior and Serendipity = 72
• Box 3.2 ORIGINS - Serendipity and Edge Detectors = 74
• Developing Research from Theory = 75
• The Nature of Theory = 75
• The Relationship between Theory and Data = 78
• Attibutes of Good Theories = 80
• Falsification = 80
• Box 3.3 CLASSIC STUDIES - Falsification and Der Kluge Hans = 82
• Parsimony = 84
• Developing Research from Other Research = 84
• Research Teams and the "What's Next?" Question = 85
• Replication and Extension = 86
• Creative Thinking in Science = 87
• Reviewing the Literature = 90
• Computerized Database Searches = 90
• Search Tips = 92
• CHAPTER 4 Measurement, Sampling, and Data Analysis = 99
• What to Measure - Varieties of Behavior = 100
• Developing Measures from Constructs = 101
• Box 4.1 ORIGINS - Reaction Time : From Mental Chronometry to Mental Rotation = 105
• Evaluating Measures = 106
• Reliability = 107
• Validity = 108
• Reliability and Validity = 110
• Scales of Measurement = 111
• Nominal Scales = 111
• Ordinal Scales = 112
• Interval Scales = 113
• Box 4.2 CLASSIC STUDIES - Measuring Somatotypes : When 7-1-1 Met1-1-7 = 114
• Ratio Scales = 115
• Who to Measure - Sampling = 116
• Probability Sampling = 116
• Random Sampling = 117
• Stratified Sampling = 119
• Cluster Sampling = 119
• Non-probability Sampling = 120
• Convenience Sampling = 120
• Statistical Analysis = 121
• Descriptive and Inferential Statistics = 122
• Descriptive Statistics = 122
• Box 4.3 ETHICS - Lying with Statistics = 128
• Inferential Statistics = 128
• Hypothesis Testing = 130
• Type Ⅰ and Type Ⅱ Errors = 132
• Inferential Analysis = 133
• Power and Effect Size = 134
• CHAPTER 5 Introduction to Experimental Research = 139
• Essential Features of Experimental Research = 141
• Establishing Independent Variables = 141
• Varieties of Independent Variables = 142
• Control Groups = 142
• Controlling Extraneous Variables = 143
• Measuring Dependent Variables = 145
• Manipulated versus Subject Variables = 145
• Drawing Conclusions When Using Subject Variables = 147
• Box 5.1 CLASSIC STUDIES - Bobo Dolls and Aggression = 149
• The Validity of Experimental Research = 151
• Statistical Conclusion Validity = 151
• Construct Validity = 152
• External Validity = 152
• Other Populations = 152
• Other Environments = 153
• Box 5.2 ETHICS - Subject Pools = 154
• Other Times = 156
• Internal Validity = 156
• Threats to Internal Validity = 157
• Pre-post Studies = 157
• History and Maturation = 158
• Regression = 158
• Testing and Instrumentation = 160
• Evaluating Pretests - The Solomon Design = 161
• Subject Problems = 161
• Subject Selection Effects = 162
• Attrition = 162
• Box 5.3 CLASSIC STUDIES - Selection Problems and Executive Monkeys = 163
• CHAPTER 6 Control Problems in Experimental Research = 169
• Between-Subjects Designs = 171
• The Problem of Creating Equivalent Groups = 172
• Random Assignment = 172
• Matching = 174
• Within-Subjects Designs = 178
• The Problem of Controlling Sequence Effects = 181
• Testing Once per Condition = 182
• Complete Counterbalancing = 182
• Partial Counterbalancing = 183
• Testing More Than Once per Condition = 183
• Reverse Counterbalancing = 185
• Block Randomization = 186
• Problems with Counterbalancing = 187
• Control Problems in Developmental Research = 189
• Box 6.1 CLASSIC STUDIES - The Record for Repeated Measures = 191
• Problems with Biasing = 192
• Experimenter Bias = 192
• Controlling for Experimenter Bias = 194
• Participant Bias = 195
• Box 6.2 ORIGINS - Productivity at Western Electric = 196
• Controlling for Participant Bias = 198
• Box 6.3 ETHICS - Research Participants Have Responsibilities Too = 199
• CHAPTER 7 Experimental Design Ⅰ : Single-Factor Designs = 205
• Single Factor - Two Levels = 207
• Between-Subjects, Single-Factor Designs = 208
• Within-Subjects, Single-Factor Designs = 211
• Box 7.1 CLASSIC STUDIES - Psychology's Most Widely Replicated Finding? = 212
• Analyzing Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs = 215
• Control Group Designs = 216
• Placebo Control Groups = 216
• Waiting List Control Groups = 217
• Yoked Control Groups = 217
• Box 7.2 ETHICS - Who's in the Control Group? = 218
• Single Factor - More Than Two Levels = 221
• Between-Subjects, Multilevel Designs = 221
• Box 7.3 ORIGINS - Nonlinear Results : The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve = 223
• Within-Subjects, Multilevel Designs = 226
• Presenting the Data = 227
• Types of Graphs = 229
• Analyzing Single-Factor, Multilevel Designs = 231
• CHAPTER 8 Experimental Design Ⅱ : Factorial Designs = 237
• Factorial Essentials = 238
• Identifying Factorial Designs = 238
• Outcomes-Main Effects and Interactions = 241
• Main Effects = 241
• Interactions = 245
• Combinations of Main Effects and Interactions = 248
• Varieties of Factorials = 252
• Mixed Factorial Designs = 253
• Factorials with Subject Variables : P × E Designs = 256
• Recruiting Participants for Factorial Designs = 260
• Analyzing Factorial Designs = 260
• Box 8.1 ORIGINS - Factorials Down on the Farm = 264
• CHAPTER 9 Correlational Research = 269
• Psychology's Two Disciplines = 271
• Box 9.1 ORIGINS - Galton's Studies of Genius = 272
• Correlation and Regression - The Basics = 273
• Positive and Negative Correlations = 274
• Scatterplots = 275
• Assuming Linearity = 275
• Restricting the Range = 278
• Regression Analysis - Making Predictions = 279
• Interpreting Correlations = 281
• Correlations and Causality = 282
• Directionality = 282
• Third Variables = 284
• Structural Modeling = 286
• Caution : Correlational Statistics versus Correlational Research = 287
• Using Correlations = 288
• The Need for Correlational Research = 288
• Varieties of Correlational Research = 289
• Box 9.2 ETHICS - APA Guidelines for Psychological Testing = 290
• Box 9.3 CLASSIC STUDIES - The Achieving Society = 292
• Multivariate Analysis = 295
• Multiple Regression = 295
• Factor Analysis = 296
• CHAPTER 10 Quasi-Experimental Designs and Applied Research = 303
• Beyond the Laboratory = 305
• Applied Psychology in Historical Context = 307
• Design Problems in Applied Research = 308
• Box 10.1 ORIGINS - Hugo M$$\ddot u$$nsterberg : Applied Psychologist Extraordinaire = 309
• Quasi-Experimental Designs = 311
• Nonequivalent Control Group Designs = 311
• Outcomes = 312
• Regression and Matching = 314
• Interrupted Time Series Designs = 318
• Outcomes = 319
• Program Evaluation = 323
• Box 10.2 CLASSIC STUDIES - Reforms as Experiments = 324
• Planning for Programs = 326
• Monitoring Programs = 328
• Evaluating Outcomes = 328
• Weighing Costs = 330
• Box 10.3 ETHICS - Evaluation Research and Ethics = 331
• CHAPTER 11 Small N Designs = 337
• Research in Psychology Began with Small N = 339
• Box 11.1 CLASSIC STUDIES - Cats in Puzzle Boxes = 342
• Reasons for Small N Designs = 344
• Misleading Results from Grouped Data = 344
• Practical Problems with Large N Designs = 346
• The Experimental Analysis of Behavior = 347
• Operant Conditioning = 347
• Box 11.2 CLASSIC STUDIES - Schedules of Reinforcement = 350
• Applied Behavior Analysis = 352
• Box 11.3 ETHICS - Controlling Human Behavior = 353
• Small N Designs in Applied Behavioral Research = 355
• Elements of Single-Subject Designs = 355
• Withdrawal Designs = 356
• Multiple Baseline Designs = 358
• Alternating Treatments Designs = 361
• Other Designs = 364
• Evaluating Single-Subject Designs = 364
• Psychophysics = 367
• Thresholds = 367
• Methods of Psychophysics = 367
• Psychophysics and Small N = 368
• CHAPTER 12 Descriptive Research Methods = 373
• Observational Research = 375
• Varieties of Observational Research = 375
• Naturalistic Observation = 375
• Participant Observation = 376
• Box 12.1 CLASSIC STUDIES - When Prophecy Fails = 376
• Evaluating Observational Methods = 378
• Absence of Control = 378
• Observer Bias = 379
• Subject Reactivity = 380
• Ethics = 381
• Survey Research = 384
• Varieties of Survey Methods = 385
• Interviews = 385
• Written Surveys = 386
• Phone Surveying = 387
• Evaluating Survey Research = 388
• Box 12.2 ETHICS - Using and Abusing Surveys = 390
• Case Studies = 393
• Box 12.3 CLASSIC STUDIES - The Mind of a Mnemonist = 393
• Evaluating Case Studies = 395
• Archival Research = 397
• Varieties of Archival Research = 397
• Evaluating Archival Research = 400
• Epilogue = 405
• A Passion for Research in Psychology (Part Ⅱ) = 405
• Robert Sternberg = 405
• Elizabeth Loftus = 407
• APPENDIX A Communicating the Results of Research in Psychology = 409
• Research Reports, APA Style = 409
• General Guidelines = 410
• Writing Style = 410
• Word Processing Tools = 411
• Reducing Bias in Language = 413
• Academic Honesty = 414
• Miscellaneous = 415
• Main Sections of the Lab Report = 415
• Title Page = 417
• The Manuscript Page Header／Page Number = 417
• Running Head = 417
• Title／ Author／Affiliation = 417
• Abstract = 418
• Introduction = 419
• APA Citation Format = 419
• Method = 420
• Results = 420
• Reporting the Data : Statistics = 421
• Portraying the Data : Tables and Figures = 421
• Discussion = 422
• References = 423
• Presentations and Posters = 423
• A Sample Research Report = 425
• APPENDIX B Developing Surveys for Research in Psychology = 441
• Survey Research - General Planning Guidelines = 441
• Survey Construction = 442
• Attitudes = 443
• Knowledge and Memory = 445
• Demographic Information = 446
• Miscellaneous Tips = 447
• APPENDIX C Using Statistics = 449
• Making Intelligent Use of Statistics = 450
• Assessing Relationships = 450
• Example 1. Pearson's r = 450
• Example 2. Regression Analysis = 452
• Assessing Differences = 453
• Example 3. X²- Goodness of Fit = 453
• Example 4. X²-Two Samples = 455
• Example 5. Mann-Whitney U Test = 457
• Example 6. t Test - Independent Groups = 459
• Example 7. t Test - Dependent Groups = 461
• Example 8. 1-Way ANOVA - Independent Groups = 463
• Example 9. 1-Way ANOVA - Repeated Measures = 466
• Example 10. 2-Way ANOVA - Independent Groups = 469
• APPENDIX D Statistical Tables = 475
• Table D.1. Random Numbers = 476
• Table D.2. Critical Values for Pearson's r = 478
• Table D.3. Critical Values for Chi-Square(X²) = 478
• Table D.4. Critical Values for the Mann-Whitney U Test = 479
• Table D.5. Critical Values from the t Distribution = 481
• Table D.6. Critical Values from the F Distribution = 482
• APPENDIX E Answers to Student Review Questions = 487
• GLOSSARY = 493
• REFERENCES = 503
• NAME INDEX = 515
• SUBJECT INDEX = 519
• PHOTO CREDITS = 523
• TEXT AND ILLUSTRATION CREDITS = 525