Thinking and problem solving

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• Contributors = xii
• Foreword = xv
• Preface = xvii
• 1 History of Research on Thinking and Problem Solving / Roger L. Dominowski ; Lyle E. Bourne, Jr.
• I. Major Antecedents of the Science of Psychology = 1
• A. Associationism = 2
• B. Faculties of the Mind = 4
• II. An Experimental Psychology of Thinking = 5
• A. Thinking According to Wundt = 5
• B. Thinking According to Ebbinghaus = 7
• III. Later Developments = 8
• A. Act Psychology = 8
• B. Early British Psychology = 11
• IV. The Psychology of Thinking in America = 12
• A. William James = 12
• B. Functionalism = 13
• C. Later Functionalism = 14
• D. Behaviorism = 15
• E. Gestalt Psychology = 16
• V. Thinking Research to 1960 = 18
• A. Research on Concepts = 18
• B. Research on Problem Solving = 23
• C. Research on Reasoning = 30
• VI. Transition to the New Cognitive Era = 32
• References = 33
• 2 Contemporary Approaches to the Study of Thinking and Problem Solving / K. Anders Ericsson ; Reid Hastie
• I. Introduction = 37
• II. A Brief History of the Study of Thinking = 39
• A. Prescientific and Philosophical Accounts of Thinking = 39
• B. Early Laboratory Studies on Sensation and Thinking = 41
• C. From Conscious Experience to Performance = 43
• III. The Information-Processing Account of Thinking = 45
• Some Issues in Research on Information Processing = 48
• IV. The Relation between the Study of Thinking in the Laboratory and in Everyday Life = 52
• A. The Quest for General Processes = 53
• B. Capturing Everyday Phenomena in Laboratory Tasks = 56
• C. Differences in Knowledge and Skill = 58
• V. The Acquisition of Complex Knowledge and Skills = 63
• A. Learning of Different Types of Performance = 64
• B. Activities Relevant to Everyday Skill Acquisition = 66
• VI. Summary and Conclusions = 69
• References = 72
• 3 Knowledge Representation / Timothy P. McNamara
• I. The Nature of Knowledge Representations = 83
• A. What Are Mental Representations and Why Are They Necessary? = 83
• B. Can Knowledge Representations Be Distinguished? = 84
• C. A Taxonomy = 86
• II. Simple Knowledge Representations = 90
• A. Analogical Knowledge Representations = 90
• B. Symbolic Knowledge Representations = 97
• C. Procedural Knowledge Representations = 104
• III. Complex Knowledge Representations = 107
• A. Schemata = 107
• B. Cognitive Maps = 108
• C. Mental Models = 109
• IV. Connectionist Models = 110
• V. Summary and Prospectus = 112
• References = 113
• 4 Concepts and Categories / Brian H. Ross ; Thomas L. Spalding
• I. Introduction = 119
• A. Definition of Concepts and Categories = 120
• B. Functions of Categories = 120
• II. How Do People Classify? = 122
• A. The Classical View = 122
• B. The Probabilistic View = 123
• C. The Exemplar View = 125
• D. Mixed Models = 127
• III. Problems for All Models of Classification = 128
• A. Between-Concept Relations: Basic Levels = 129
• B. Classification Disconnected from Other Uses of Concepts = 132
• C. Difficulties for Classification: Features and Similarity = 134
• D. Summary = 135
• IV. Theory-Based Conceptual Knowledge = 135
• A. The Theory-Based View = 137
• B. What Do We Gain? = 139
• C. Problems with the Theory View = 140
• V. Current Directions = 141
• A. Classification = 141
• B. Inference = 141
• C. Conceptual Combinations = 143
• D. More Radical Extensions = 144
• VI. Concluding Remarks = 145
• References = 145
• 5 Deduction and Its Cognitive Basis / Lance J. Rips
• I. What Accounts for Elementary Inference? = 150
• II. Inference Rules and Logical Form = 151
• III. Instrumental Theories = 153
• A. Two Qualifications = 154
• B. Experimental Implications = 156
• IV. Pattern Processing Theories: Diagrammatic and Connectionist Accounts = 159
• A. Diagrammatic Theories = 160
• B. Connectionist Theories = 167
• V. What Is Behind Deduction Ability? = 173
• References = 177
• 6 Inductive Reasoning / Jeffery Bisanz ; Gay L. Bisanz ; Connie A. Korpan
• I. Characteristics of Induction = 181
• II. A Cognitive-Components Approach = 183
• A. Identifying Processes and Representations = 185
• B. An Integrative Theory = 191
• C. Summary and Evaluation = 195
• III. A Pragmatic Approach = 196
• A. Research on Statistical Reasoning = 199
• B. Conclusions and Evaluation = 205
• IV. Conclusions = 208
• References = 210
• 7 Problem Solving / Earl Hunt
• I. Introduction = 215
• II. From Intuitions to Problem Spaces = 216
• III. Historical and Modern Approaches to the Study of Thought: From Aristotle's Syllogisms to Programs for Thinking = 217
• IV. Problem Solving as Searching through a Knowledge Space = 220
• V. Pattern-Action Rules and Human Problem Solving = 222
• VI. Limitations on Representations Introduced by Immediate Memory = 224
• VII. Means-End Analysis: Backward and Forward Problem Solving = 225
• VIII. Schematic Reasoning and General Problem Solving = 227
• IX. Applied Reasoning: The Ideal Problem Solver and How It Can Be Approximated = 229
• X. Conclusion: Understanding Human Problem Solving and Problem Representations = 230
• References = 231
• 8 Language and Thought / Richard J. Gerrig ; Mahzarin R. Banaji
• I. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Revisited = 235
• A. Color Memory = 237
• B. Counterfactual Constructions and Reasoning = 239
• C. Concept Labels and Cognition = 242
• II. Conceptual Metaphors = 245
• A. The Influence of Thought on Metaphorical Language = 246
• B. The Influence of Metaphorical Language on Thought = 249
• III. Language Acquisition = 252
• A. The Influence of Cognitive Development on Language Acquisition = 252
• B. The Influence of Language Acquisition on Cognitive Development = 253
• C. Bilingualism = 256
• IV. Conclusions = 257
• References = 258
• 9 Intelligence / Robert J. Sternberg
• I. Biological Approaches to Intelligence = 266
• A. Global Theories of Brain and Intelligence = 266
• B. Nerve Conduction Velocity = 267
• C. Hemispheric Specialization = 269
• D. Brain Size = 270
• E. Brain Activity = 270
• II. Cognitive Approaches = 272
• A. Historical Approaches = 272
• B. The Cognitive-Correlates Approach = 273
• C. The Cognitive-Components Approach = 274
• D. Artificial-Intelligence Approaches = 276
• III. Contextual Approaches to Intelligence = 278
• IV. The Systems Approach = 280
• A. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences = 281
• B. The Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence = 281
• V. Conclusion = 282
• References = 283
• 10 Creativity / Todd I. Lubart
• I. The Basic Phenomenon: Descriptive Issues = 290
• A. Definition of Creativity = 290
• B. Distribution of Creativity = 293
• C. Domain Specifidty = 293
• II. The Source of Creativity = 294
• A. An Overview of Alternative Conceptions = 294
• B. Components of Creaticity = 301
• III. The Creative Process = 314
• A. Different Theoretical Positions on the Creative Process = 314
• B. The Four-Stage Creative Process Model: A Case Study = 316
• IV. Techniques for Measuring Creativity = 318
• A. Cognitive Abilities Test = 318
• B. Personality Inventories = 320
• C. Biographical Inventories = 320
• D. Attitude and Interest Surveys = 321
• E. Person-Centered Ratings by Teachers, Peers, and Supervisors = 321
• F. Eminence = 321
• G. Self-Reports of Achievements = 322
• H. Judgments of Work Samples = 322
• V. Summary and Conclusions = 323
• References = 323
• 11 Development of Problem Solving / Shari Ellis ; Robert S. Siegler
• I. The Early Development of Problem Solving = 334
• A. Strategic Development = 334
• B. Representational Development in the Toddler Period = 337
• C. Self-Regulation in Preschooler's Problem Solving = 341
• II. Development of Problem Solving in Later Childhood = 345
• A. Strategic Development = 345
• B. Representational Development = 349
• C. Self-Regulation = 354
• III. Conclusions = 360
• References = 363
• 12 Cultural Dimensions of Cognition: A Multiplex, Dynamic System of Constraints and Possibilities / Robert Serpell ; A. Wade Boykin
• I. Introduction = 369
• II. Dimensions of Cognition Amenable to Cultural Influence = 373
• A. Knowledge Base = 373
• B. Structural Organization = 375
• C. Hierarchy of Values = 377
• D. Pragmatic Focus = 378
• III. Conceptualizations of Cultural Context = 379
• A. Relationships, Practices, and Meanings = 379
• B. Appropriation of Cultural Resources = 381
• C. The Nature of Cultural Integrity = 381
• D. The Significance of History = 383
• IV. A Blind Spot in American Psychology = 385
• V. Cognition and Schooling in Low-Income African-American Communities: Empirical Studies = 389
• VI. The Significance of Schooling in a Rural African Neighborhood: A Case Study = 392
• VII. Processes of Bicultural Mediation = 396
• VIII. Implications for Educational Practice = 400
• References = 403
• 13 The Teaching of Thinking and Problem Solving / Raymond S. Nickerson
• I. Introduction = 409
• II. The Need to Teach Thinking and Problem Solving = 410
• III. Interest in the Teaching of Thinking and Problem Solving = 411
• IV. Why the Interest in Teaching Thinking and Problem Solving? = 413
• V. Foci of Efforts to Teach Thinking and Problem Solving = 414
• A. Basic Operations or Processes = 415
• B. Domain-Specific Knowledge = 415
• C. Knowledge of Normative Principles of Reasoning = 416
• D. Knowledge of Informal Principles and Tools of Thought = 418
• E. Metacognitive Knowledge = 419
• F. Attitudes, Dispositions, Values, and Styles = 420
• G. Beliefs = 420
• H. Interdependence of Factors = 421
• VI. Theories, Models, and Conceptual Frameworks = 422
• VII. Stepwise Conceptions of Problem Solving = 424
• VIII. Problem-Solving Methods and Strategies = 425
• A. Problem Decomposition or Subgoaling = 425
• B. Working Backwards = 426
• C. Hill Climbing = 426
• D. Means-End Analysis = 427
• E. Forward Chaining = 427
• F. Considering Analogous Problems = 428
• G. Specialization and Generalization = 428
• H. Considering Extreme Cases = 429
• I. Mixing Strategies = 430
• IX. Representation = 430
• X. Evaluation = 434
• XI. The Question of Transfer = 436
• XII. Practicalities of Teaching Thinking and Problem Solving = 438
• XIII. Cognitive Research and the Practice of Teaching = 439
• XIV. Concluding Comments = 440
• References = 441
• Index = 451