Renewable energy : power for a sustainable future

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW
• 1.1 Introduction = 1
• Style and approach = 1
• Summary of Chapter 1 = 2
• A brief history of energy use = 2
• Technical interlude : What are energy, power, etc? = 4
• 1.2 Present-day fuel use = 9
• World energy supplies = 9
• Energy use in Europe = 11
• Energy us and the potential for savings = 14
• 1.3 The energy problems of modern societies = 19
• Environmental problems = 19
• Sustainability problems = 24
• Social problems = 26
• 1.4 Renewable energy sources : a way out? = 27
• Origins and size of renewable energy resources = 28
• Renewables as the basis of a technologically sophisticated society = 32
• References = 38
• Further Reading = 39
• CHAPTER 2 SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY
• 2.1 Introduction = 41
• 2.2 Case study : solar water heaters in south London = 42
• 2.3 The nature and availability of solar radiation = 44
• The wavelengths of solar radiation = 44
• Direct and diffuse radiation = 45
• Availability of solar radiation = 46
• Tilt and orientation = 47
• 2.4 The magic of glass = 48
• Transparency = 49
• Heat loss mechanisms = 50
• 2.5 Low-temperature solar energy applications = 52
• Domestic water heating = 53
• Domestic space heating = 54
• Varieties of solar heating system = 56
• 2.6 Active solar heating = 58
• History = 58
• Solar collectors = 58
• Robustness, mounting and orientation = 59
• Active solar space heating = 60
• Solar-aided district heating = 61
• 2.7 Passive solar heating = 63
• History = 63
• Direct gain buildings as solar collectors = 64
• Passive solar heating versus superinsulation = 64
• Window energy balance = 64
• General passive solar heating techniques = 67
• Conservatories, greenhouses and atria = 69
• Trombe walls = 70
• Avoiding overshading = 70
• 2.8 Daylighting = 72
• 2.9 Solar thermal engines and electricity generation = 73
• The first solar engine age = 75
• The new solar age = 76
• Power towers = 76
• Parabolic trough concentrator systems = 78
• Parabolic dish concentrator systems = 79
• Solar ponds = 80
• Ocean thermal energy conversion = 81
• 2.10 Economics, potential and environmental impact = 82
• Economics and potential = 82
• Domestic active solar water heating = 82
• Swimming pool water heating = 83
• Active solar space heating = 83
• Passive solar heating and daylighting = 84
• Solar thermal engines and electricity generation = 85
• Conclusions = 85
• References = 86
• Further Reading = 86
• CHAPTER 3 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS
• 3.1 Introduction = 89
• 3.2 Case study : Rappenecker Hof = 90
• 3.3 Introducing photovoltaics = 92
• Historical background = 92
• 3.4 PV in silicon : basic principles = 97
• Semiconductors and 'doping' = 97
• The p-n junction = 98
• The PV effect = 98
• Monocrystalline silicon cells = 99
• 3.5 Reducing the cost of crystalline PV cells = 103
• Silicon ribbon cells = 103
• Polycrystalline silicon cells = 104
• Polycrystalline thin film silicon cells = 104
• Gallium arsenide cells = 105
• 3.6 Thin film PV = 106
• Amorphous silicon = 106
• Copper indium diselenide = 108
• Cadmium telluride = 109
• 3.7 Other innovative PV technologies = 109
• Multi-junction PV cells = 109
• Concentrating PV systems = 110
• Fluorescent concentrators = 111
• Silicon spheres = 111
• Photo-electrochemical cells = 111
• 3.8 Electrical characteristics of silicon PV cells and modules = 113
• 3.9 PV systems for remote power = 115
• 'Autonomous' roof-top PV for UK homes = 116
• PV systems in developing countries = 117
• 3.10 Grid-connected PV systems = 119
• Grid-connected PV systems for residences = 119
• PV cladding for the roofs and walls of non-domestic buildings = 120
• Large, grid-connected PV power plants = 121
• Satellite solar power = 125
• 3.11 Economics of PV energy systems = 126
• Cost of power from a small PV system in the UK = 126
• Cost of power from a grid-connected PV system in the UK = 127
• Reducing the costs of power from PV = 128
• 3.12 Environmental impact and safety = 129
• Environmental impact and safety of PV systems = 129
• Environmental impact and safety of PV module production and recycling = 130
• Energy balance of PV systems = 131
• 3.13 Integration of PV into future energy systems = 131
• References = 133
• Further Reading = 135
• CHAPTER 4 BIOMASS
• 4.1 Introduction = 137
• Biomass = 137
• Biofuels = 138
• Summary = 138
• 4.2 Biomass past and present = 138
• From wood to coal = 138
• Present biomass contributions = 139
• 4.3 Case study : wood as fuel = 140
• 4.4 Biomass as a fuel = 142
• What are fuels? = 142
• Biomass as a solar energy store = 143
• Conversion efficiencies = 144
• Estimating the resource = 146
• 4.5 Extracting the energy = 147
• Direct combustion = 147
• Gasification = 149
• Pyrolysis = 150
• Gas turbines = 150
• Synthesising fuels = 151
• Anaerobic digestion = 151
• Biogas = 152
• Landfill gas = 153
• Fermentation = 154
• 4.6 Agricultural residues = 154
• Wood residues = 155
• Temperate crop wastes = 155
• Animal wastes = 157
• Tropical crop wastes = 158
• 4.7 Energy from refuse = 160
• Municipal solid waste = 160
• MSW combustion = 160
• Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) = 160
• Landfill gas developments = 162
• Anaerobic digesters for MSW = 162
• Commercial and industrial wastes = 163
• 4.8 Energy crops = 165
• Woody crops = 165
• Ethanol from sugar cane = 166
• Maize, sorghum and miscanthus = 167
• Vegetable oils = 168
• 4.9 Environmental benefits and impacts = 169
• Caron dioxide = 169
• Other combustion products = 169
• Methane = 170
• Land use = 170
• Energy balances = 171
• 4.10 Economics = 172
• Institutional factors = 172
• Biogas = 173
• Wood energy crops = 174
• Forestry wastes = 174
• Electricity from biomass = 174
• Power from surplus straw = 175
• Ethanol production in Brazil = 176
• 4.11 New technologies = 177
• Power from gas turbines = 177
• Biomass fuel cells = 178
• Photobiological fuel production = 178
• 4.12 Future prospects = 179
• The world view = 179
• Regional views = 179
• References = 180
• Further Reading = 181
• CHAPTER 5 HYDROELECTRICITY
• 5.1 Summary = 183
• 5.2 Case study : the Galloway Hydros = 184
• 5.3 The resource = 187
• Stored potential energy = 187
• Power, head and flow rate = 188
• The world resource = 188
• Present world capacity and output = 189
• 5.4 A brief history of water power = 190
• The prime mover = 190
• Types of water-wheel = 193
• Nineteenth-century hydro technology = 194
• 5.5 Types of hydroelectric plant = 197
• Low, medium and high heads = 197
• Estimating the power = 198
• 5.6 The Francis turbine = 199
• Action of the turbine = 200
• Maximising the efficiency = 202
• Limits to the francis turbine = 203
• 5.7 'Propellers' = 204
• 5.8 Impulse turbines = 205
• Pelton wheels = 205
• Turgo and cross-flow trubines = 207
• 5.9 Specific speed and ranges of application = 207
• 5.10 Small-scale hydroelectricity = 209
• World-wide developments = 209
• Small-scale potential in the UK = 210
• 5.11 Environmental considerations = 212
• Hydrological effects = 212
• Dams and their effects = 214
• Social effects = 215
• 5.12 Integration = 216
• Power stations as elements in a system = 216
• Pumped storage = 217
• 5.13 Economics = 220
• Costs = 220
• Investing in hydroelectricity = 222
• 5.14 Future prospects = 223
• Conventional large installations = 223
• Small-scale plant = 224
• References = 225
• Further Reading = 226
• CHAPTER 6 TIDAL POWER
• 6.1 Introduction = 227
• The nature of the resource = 230
• Basic physics = 231
• Power generation = 235
• 6.2 Technical factors = 237
• 6.3 Environmental factors = 243
• 6.4 Integration = 249
• 6.5 Economic factors = 252
• 6.6 Potential = 256
• United Kingdom = 256
• World = 258
• 6.7 Conclusion = 261
• References = 264
• Further Reading = 265
• CHAPTER 7 WIND ENERGY
• 7.1 Introduction = 267
• 7.2 Case studies : Wood Green Animal Shelter wind turbine ; Delabole, the UK's first wind farm = 268
• 7.3 The wind = 272
• Energy and power in the wind = 275
• 7.4 Wind turbines = 276
• History of wind energy = 276
• Wind turbines = 280
• Horizontal axis wind turbines = 280
• Vertical axis wind turbines = 280
• 7.5 Aerodynamics of wind turbines = 284
• Aerodynamic forces = 284
• Aerofoils = 284
• Relative wind velocity = 287
• How do wind turbines work? = 288
• Horizontal axis wind turbines = 288
• Vertical axis wind turbines = 291
• 7.6 Power and energy from wind turbines = 292
• How much power does a wind turbine produce? = 292
• How much energy will wind turbines produce? = 292
• Estimating wind speed characteristics of a site = 294
• 7.7 Environmental impact = 296
• Environmental benefits of electricity generation by wind energy = 296
• Environmental impacts of wind turbines = 296
• Planning and wind energy = 301
• 7.8 Economics = 302
• Cost calculation = 302
• Capital costs = 302
• Annual charge rate = 303
• The non-fossil fuel obligation and wind energy = 303
• 7.9 Commercial development and wind energy potential = 304
• Wind energy developments = 304
• Small-scale wind turbines = 306
• Local community wind turbines = 307
• Wind energy potential = 307
• 7.10 Recent developments = 311
• References = 312
• Further Reading = 313
• CHAPTER 8 WAVE ENERGY
• 8.1 Introduction = 315
• Recent history = 315
• 8.2 Case study 1 : TAPCHAN = 316
• 8.3 Case study 2 : The Islay shoreline gully oscillating water column = 318
• 8.4 Physical principles of wave energy = 320
• Typical sea state = 321
• Variations in the wave power at any location = 324
• Wave direction = 325
• What happens beneath the surface? = 326
• Moving into shallow water = 326
• Refraction = 327
• 8.5 Wave energy technology = 328
• Fixed devices = 329
• Floating devices = 333
• Wave energy research activity around the world = 337
• 8.6 Resources = 343
• 8.7 Economics = 343
• 8.8 Environmental impact = 344
• 8.9 Integration = 345
• Wave energy for isolated communities = 345
• Wave energy for large electricity grids = 345
• 8.10 Future prospects = 347
• The DTI wave energy review = 347
• 8.11 Conclusion = 349
• The current state of play = 350
• References = 351
• Further Reading
• CHAPTER 9 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
• 9.1 Introduction and Summary = 353
• 9.2 Case study : the Southampton Geothermal District Heating Scheme = 354
• 9.3 Geothermal energy - an overview = 356
• The mining of geothermal heat = 356
• The earth as a heat engine = 357
• A historical perspective = 359
• 9.4 The physics of geothermal resources = 361
• Primary ingredients = 361
• Volcano-related heat sources and fluids = 364
• The heat source in sedimentary basins = 367
• Why are there hot dry rocks? = 370
• 9.5 Technologies for geothermal resource exploitation = 372
• Resources in high-pressure steam fields = 372
• Resources for direct use geothermal energy = 375
• Hot dry rock technology = 378
• 9.6 Environmental implications = 380
• 9.7 Economics and world potential = 383
• 9.8 Geothermal potential in the United Kingdom = 386
• Sedimentary basin aquifers = 386
• Hot dry rocks = 388
• Further Reading = 391
• CHAPTER 10 INTEGRATION
• 10.1 Introduction = 393
• 10.2 Existing energy systems = 395
• 10.3 How much renewable energy is available? = 397
• 10.4 Are renewable energy supplies available where we want them? = 400
• Where do renewables fit in? = 401
• Regional energy studies = 402
• 10.5 Are renewable energy supplies available when we want them? = 403
• Renewables as heat suppliers = 403
• Electricity : how the current UK system works = 404
• Integrating renewable electricity = 407
• Renewable transport fuels : the solar hydrogen economy? = 409
• 10.6 Changing patterns of energy use = 411
• The United Kingdom = 413
• Denmark = 413
• France = 413
• 10.7 Energy scenarios : Europe = 415
• 10.8 Balancing economic options = 417
• renewables and conservation = 418
• Balancing economic and environmental considerations = 419
• 10.9 Promoting renewables = 422
• The EC carbon／energy tax = 422
• The UK non-fossil fuel obligation = 423
• Biofuels and agricultural subsidies = 425
• 10.10 Long-term global renewable energy scenarios = 425
• The World Energy Council scenarios = 425
• The renewables-intensive global energy strategy = 429
• The Shall scenarios = 429
• The Greenpeace fossil-free energy scenario = 430
• 10.11 Conclusion = 431
• References = 432
• Further Reading = 433
• CHAPTER 11 COST AND RESOURCE ESTIMATING
• A.1 Introduction = 435
• A.2 Costing = 436
• Introduction = 436
• The theory of discounting = 437
• Interest rates and discount rates = 437
• Inflation = 438
• The basic discounting formulae = 440
• Details of the cost calculation = 442
• Conclusion = 446
• A.3 Resource terminology = 446
• Describing resource size = 446
• A.4 Resource-cost curves = 449
• Variation of resource size with cost = 449
• Constructing resource-cost curves = 450
• A.5 Difficulties with comparative resource-cost estimation = 451
• Introduction = 451
• Cost estimating = 451
• 'Real-world' complications = 452
• Other economic indicators = 455
• Sensitivity analyses = 457
• References = 458
• Further Reading = 458
• Acknowledgements = 459
• Index = 463