The American radio : a report on the broadcasting industry in the United States from the Commission on Freedom of the Press

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• 1. THE PROBLEM = 1
• The Opportunity Presented by the New Medium = 1
• The New Context : The Atomic Age = 2
• The Role of the Media of Mass Communication = 3
• Radio's Peculiar Role = 4
• The Commission's Five Requirements for a Free Society = 5
• The Five Requirements in Terms of Radio Practice = 6
• 2. MARCONI'S MARVEL = 11
• Early Experiments in Wireless Communication = 11
• Formation of the Radio Corporation of America = 12
• The First Successful Aural Broadcasts = 13
• A.T. & T. and R.C.A. Establish Rival Networks = 14
• A Breakdown of the Electromagnetic Spectrum = 16
• Conrad's Experiments with Short Wave for Radio Relay = 16
• An Unexpected By-Product : Global Short-Wave Broadcasting = 17
• The Belated Search for Alternatives to the Telephone Long-Lines and Coaxial Cables for Linking Broadcast Stations Together in Networks : Point-to-Point Wireless Relay, Stratovision, Microwave, Mobile Highways, Photovision = 18
• Making One Frequency Do the Work of Several : Pulse-Time Modulation = 19
• The Characteristics of Radio Waves : How They Are Measured = 19
• The Characteristics of Amplitude Modulation(AM) = 20
• The Contrasting Characteristics of Frequency Modulation(FM) : Its Advantages and Disadvantages = 21
• The Industry's Initial Negative Attitude toward FM and Major Armstrong, Its Early Champion = 22
• The F. C. C. Authorizes Commercial FM : the Confusion over the Shift in Bands = 22
• The Status of FM Broadcasting at the End of 1946 = 23
• Early Experiments with Television = 23
• The Zworykin-Farnsworth Refinements : N. B. C., C. B. S., Zenith, Du Mont, Paramount, G. E., Westinghouse, and Don Lee as pioneers in Television = 23
• The F. C. C. Authorizes Commercial Television : the First Sponsored Programs = 24
• The Color versus Black-and-White Controversy and Abatement of Early Enthusiasm = 24
• The Status of Television Broadcasting at the end of 1946 = 25
• Early Experiments with Facsimile = 25
• The Status of Facsimile Broadcasting at the End of 1946 : Physical Factors Retarding the Development of the Facsimile Newspaper = 25
• 3. RAGTIME TO RICHES = 27
• The Original Source of Revenue to Support Aural Broadcasting = 27
• Sarnoff Foresees the Time when Equipment Sales May Not Foot the Bill = 27
• The Sharpening of Public Tastes, the Clamor of Artists for Compensation, and A. S. C. A. P.'s Royalty Demands Send Mounting Costs Soaring = 28
• Its Plea for Public Support Rebuffed, A. T. & T. Tries a New Experiment : WEAF (New York) Welcomes the First Sponsor with Goods To Sell = 29
• The First Radio Conference Denounces A. T. & T.'s Burgeoning Advertising Monopoly = 29
• A. T. & T. Breaks with R. C. A. and Prepares To Withdraw from the Broadcasting Field = 30
• R. C. A. Acquires A. T. & T.'s Red Network To Add to Its Blue : the Formation of the National Broadcasting Company = 31
• The Rapid Growth of R. C. A. : Manufacture of Communications and Electronic Equipment, Recording and Point-to-Point Telecommunication Subsidiaries : Formation of the Radio-Keith-Orpheum Motion Picture Production and Distribution Company = 31
• The Government Breaks Up the R. C. A. Monopoly, Forcing G. E. and Westinghouse To Withdraw = 32
• The Formation of the Judson Radio Program Corporation, the United Independent Broadcasters, and the Columbia Phonograph Broadcasting System : Forerunners of C. B. S. = 33
• William S. Paley Assumes Control of C. B. S. : Acquisition of the Columbia Recording Corporation and a Venture into the Motion Picture Field through a Brief Tie-up with the Paramount Public Corporation = 34
• The Scramble for Affiliation with the Two Networks : Division of Affiliated Stations at the End of 1946 = 35
• The Evolution of Network-Affiliate Contract Policy = 36
• The Growth of Network-owned Stations and Its Impact on the Limited Clear-Channel Situation = 37
• The Growth of Regional and Common-Ownership Networks = 38
• WOR(New York) and WGN(Chicago) Form the Basis for a "Mutual" Network : the Rapid Expansion of the Mutual Broadcasting System = 38
• The F. C. C. Breaks up the N. B. C. -C. B. S. Talent Monopoly, Forces the Two Older Networks To Relax Their Hold on Affiliates, and Persuades N.B.C. To Sell the Blue Network(Now Known as the American Broadcasting Company) = 40
• Unsuccessful Attempts To Launch a Fifth National Network = 41
• The Manufacture of Radio Equipment Becomes a Multimillion-Dollar Business : the Relation of Huge Inventories to the Development of FM and Television : Hollywood Eyes Television = 41
• Genesis of the Newspaper-Radio News Feud = 44
• C. B. S's Effort To Launch a Radion News-gathering Agency Is Thwarted by Publisher-Press Association Opposition and Lack of Support from the Broadcasters = 44
• The Biltmore Agreement : the Formation of Press Radio, Inc. = 45
• Competition from Trans-Radio, Inc., Forces United Press and International News Service To Break the Publishers' United Front = 46
• The Publishers' Attitude toward the Facsimile Newspaper = 47
• A. S. C. A. P.'s Royalty Demands Bring About the Formation of the National Association of Broadcasters : the Launching of Broadcast Music, Inc. = 48
• Petrillo Begins a Series of Moves through the American Federation of Musicians To Forestall Technological Unemployment for 100,000 Musicians Employed by Broadcasting and Recording Companies : the 1935 "Stand-by" Demand = 50
• Petrillo Addresses Himself to the "Juke-Box," Amateur Musicians, and Record-Changers = 51
• Petrillo Directs His Attention to Television, FM, and Foreign Broadcasts = 52
• Congress Passes the Lea Act, and Petrillo Wins the First Round in His Plan To Have It Ruled Unconstitutional = 53
• Manufacturers with Sagging Sales Graphs Overcome the Advertising Agencies' Initial Skepticism toward Radio as a Merchandising Medium = 54
• The Advertising Men Decide To Take over Radio, Lock, Stock, and Barrel: Good Programming Becomes Secondary to Product Salesmanship = 55
• The Steady Concentration of Sponsor and Advertising Agency Control = 57
• The Immediate Effects of This Concentration : Abandonment by the Broadcasters of Their Early Scruples against Direct Merchandising during Choice Evening Hours, Exclusion from Those Hours of All but "Formula" Mass Entertainment, and Invasion of Daytime Hours by "Soap Opera" = 61
• The Coming of Swollen Budgets and Expensive Stars = 62
• The Development of G-Man and Cowpoke Shows for Children : Amateur, Quiz, and Audience-Participation Shows for All Ages = 63
• The "Good Music" Formula for "Public Service" = 64
• The First Forum Shows = 64
• Drama on the Radio = 65
• New Trends in Advertising; the "Package" Show : Co-operative Sponsorship = 65
• Program Trends from 1933 to 1944 = 66
• 4. TOWARD SELF-REGULATION = 68
• Early Adoption of Advertising Ethics = 69
• The Formation of the National Association of Broadcasters : Its First Goals = 70
• The First N. A. B. Code : The "Standard of Commercial Practice" = 71
• The 1937 Five-Point Program = 72
• The First Test of Program Standards : Short-Wave Broadcasts Abroad = 73
• The "Atlantic City Fiasco" : Adoption of the 1939 Code = 74
• The Code Manual = 76
• The Code Manual on Political Broadcasts = 77
• Trouble with Co-operatives and Unions = 77
• The WHKC Case = 80
• The Code Manual on Controversial Public Issues Not the Subject of Specific Legislation = 81
• The End of the Controversial Public Issues Clause = 81
• N. A. B.'s Routine Functions = 82
• Confusion among the Broadcasters as to the Proper Aims of N. A. B. = 83
• The Association of Radio News Analysts = 86
• Other Industry Groups : Radio Directors' Guild : Radio Writers' Guild ； American Federation of Radio Artists ； American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers ； American Federation of Musicians ； American Guild of Radio Announcers and Producers ； Associated Actors and Artistes of America; Television Broadcasters' Association ； Institute of Radio Engineers ； Federal Communications Bar Association ； Radio Manufacturers' Association ； American Radio Telegraphers Association ； International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; International Alliance of Theatre Stage Employees and Moving Picture Machine Operators ； National Association of Broadcasting Engineers and Technicians ； Sports Broadcasters' Association = 87
• The Broadcasters' Lack of a Clearing House for Program Ideas = 88
• The Broadcasters' Failure To Enforce Standards = 89
• Confusion over the Meaning of "Public Service" = 90
• The Disparate Backgrounds of Broadcasters = 92
• The Inevitable Consequences of Surrendering Control to the Advertiser : The People, through the F.C.C., Have No Control over the Advertiser; the Advertiser's Sole Mission in Life Is To Sell Goods and Services; His Natural Aversion to "Educational" Programs, Controversy, Diversity, Experimentation, and Local, as Opposed to Network, Appeals = 93
• The Broadcasters' Own Indictment of the Advertiser = 97
• What the Broadcasters Could Do about the Advertiser = 98
• What the Broadcasters Could Do about Themselves = 100
• 5. THE LIGHT THAT FAILED = 101
• The Early Mushrooming of Educational Stations = 101
• The Quick Decline of Educational Broadcasting : Some Case Histories = 102
• Educational Stations That Survived : Some Case Histories = 104
• The Prospects for Educational FM and Television Stations = 106
• The Attitude of the Commercial Broadcasters toward Educational Broadcasting : Some Fallacies Regarding the Value of Shared Time, the Relative Cheapness of FM, and the Substitution of Transcriptions for Live Network Hookups = 108
• The F. C. C.'s Failure To Support the Educators = 109
• The Indifference of Certain Educators and Educational Institutions = 110
• What the Educators Could Do in Concert = 111
• 6. WHAT DO THE LISTENERS SAY? = 112
• The Meagerness of Precise Data on What the Listeners Think of Their Radio Program Fare = 112
• The N. A. B. Extends a Hand to a Handful of Organized Listener Groups = 113
• The Development of Listener "Ratings" : Crossley, Hooper, Nielsen = 115
• The First "Objective" Surveys of Listener Tastes : Roper, Likert, the National Opinion Research Center = 117
• Dr. Lazarsfeld Analyzes the N. O. R. C. Survey = 118
• Radio Awards : Peabody, Ohio State, Cleveland Plain Dealer, Variety, Du Pont, radio editors' = 121
• The Almost Total Absence of Constructive Criticism of Radio in the Other Media = 122
• 7. THE GOVERNMENT'S ROLE = 126
• The Five Periods of Emphasis in Radio Regulation = 126
• The Six Major Concerns of the Regulatory Agency since 1927 = 128
• Early Attempts at Regulation by Secretary Hoover = 128
• Hoover's First Rebuff by the Courts : The Intercity Case = 129
• Hoover's Second Rebuff : The Zenith Case and the Acting Attorney-General's Opinion = 130
• The Radio Act of 1927 = 131
• The Federal Radio Commission Begins Its Task of Restoring Order in Bedlam = 134
• The First Clear-Channel and Daytime Sharing Pattern Takes Shape = 135
• Postwar FM Band Assignments and Proposed Regulations = 137
• Postwar Television Band Assignments and Proposed Regulations = 138
• Early Attempts To Achieve Equal Distribution among the States : The Davis Amendment and the Zone System = 139
• Adoption of the Unit Quota System = 141
• The Nelson Brothers Case = 142
• Problems of Channel Sharing : the WHDH Case = 143
• The Clear-Channel Situation in 1946 = 144
• The F. C. C. Studies Several New Approaches to the Problem : the F. C. C., Radio Technical Planning Board, Clear Channel Broadcasting Service, Regional Broadcasters' Committee, C.B.S., N.B.C., and WLW Plans = 145
• The F. C. C. Studies New Approaches to the Problem of Interconnecting Stations : Progress on A.T. & T.'s Coaxial System and Mobile Highways Plan ； Westing-house's Stratovision ； Raytheon's Microwave ； Du Mont's Photovision = 150
• The F. C. C. Studies New Ways To Get More Work out of a Single Frequency : Federal's Pulse-Time, Bell Laboratory's Wave-Guide = 152
• Congressional Preoccupation with Monopoly as a Factor in the Quest for Wider Radio Coverage = 154
• Early Antitrust Actions = 154
• Congress Takes up the Cudgels for the Noncommercial Broadcaster : The Wagner-Hatfield Amendment = 155
• Passage of the Communications Act of 1934 : the New Federal Communications Commission Advises against an Arbitrary Division of Frequencies between Commercial and Noncommercial Broadcasters = 159
• The Problem of Newspaper Ownership of Broadcasting Stations = 158
• The F. C. C. Decides after Hearings on Newspaper Ownership To Lay Down No Rules = 159
• The Economic Survival Factor in Licensing : The Sanders Brothers Case = 161
• The Chain Broadcasting Regulations : The Launching of Hearings ； Abuses and Correctives Cited by fly = 162
• The F. C. C. Minority Dissent = 166
• The Supreme Court Validates the Chain Broadcasting Regulations ； Frankfurter's Remarks on the Scope of F.C.C. Authority = 167
• The Supreme Court Minority Dissent = 167
• Results of the Chain Broadcasting Regulations Re-examined ； the 1946 - 47 Study of Regional Networks = 168
• Origin of the Problem of How To Prevent Speculation in the People's Frequencies = 169
• The WINS and Crosley - A. V. C. O. Cases = 169
• Failing To Get New Legislation, the F. C. C. Tries Out a Competitive-Bidding Plan = 172
• The Protection of Local Interests : Some Fundamental Conflicts and Fallacies in the Local versus Powerful Secondary and ／ or Network Service Controversy = 172
• The Knotty Problem of Assuring Adequate Facilities for the Discussion of Controversial Public Issues : Political Broadcasts and Accountability for Libel = 174
• The F. C. C.'s Defense of Co-operatives and Unions = 175
• Free Speech and Atheism : The Scott Case = 176
• The F. C. C. Decides that Broadcasters Must Not Be Advocates in Public Discussion : The Mayflower Decision = 177
• Standards of Qualification for Prospective Broadcasters : The Difficulty of Getting at the Facts = 178
• Concealment of Ownership : The Texas and Florida Cases = 179
• Concealment of Ownership as an Overriding Factor : The WOKO Case = 180
• Surrender of Program Control to Others than Advertisers : the Booklyn, Alabama Polytechnic, and New Jersey Cases = 181
• The Blue Book : Porter's Warning to the Broadcasters ； 22 Renewal Applicants Placed on Probation = 182
• The Blue Book : Horrible Examples = 184
• The Blue Book : The Argument for Sustaining versus Commercial = 184
• The Blue Book : The Argument for Local Live Programs = 188
• The Blue Book : The Discussion of Public Issues = 189
• The Blue Book : Advertising Excesses = 190
• The Blue Book : The F. C. C. Announces a New Policy = 191
• Some Weaknesses of the Blue Book Approach = 193
• Recapitulation of Accomplishments after Nineteen Years of Federal Regulation = 199
• The Lot of the Bureaucrat : Some Obstacles in the Path of Maximum F. C. C. Efficiency = 200
• 8. CONCLUSIONS AND PROPOSALS = 204
• The Improvement of Physical Distribution and Operation = 204
• The Improvement of Radio Program Fare = 211
• The Improvement of Basic Relations = 224
• APPENDIX = 237
• Ⅰ. Regional Networks = 237
• Ⅱ. Excerpts from 1929 Code = 240
• Ⅲ. 1939 "Standards of Practice" = 242
• Ⅳ. Excerpts from 1939 Code Manual = 247
• NOTE ON SOURCES = 252
• PUBLICATIONS OF THE COMMISSION = 257