Water treatment handbook

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• Presentation = Ⅴ
• Part One : General Aspects of Water and Water Treatment = 1
• CHAPTER 1. WATER : PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, BIOLOGY = 3
• 1. Water and its physical characteristics = 4
• 1.1. The water molecule = 4
• 1.2. The three states = 5
• 1.3. Physical properties = 5
• 2. Water and chemistry = 7
• 2.1. Water as a solvent = 7
• 2.1.1. Solubility of the various phases = 8
• 2.1.2. Hydrophilization = 9
• 2.1.3. True solutions = 10
• 2.1.4. Ionization = 11
• 2.2. Oxidation-reduction = 14
• 3. Water and biology = 15
• 3.1. Water and cellular metabolism = 15
• 3.2. Water : the medium for microbic life = 17
• 3.3. Nutritive substances = 19
• CHAPTER 2. ACTION OF WATER ON MATERIALS = 21
• 1. Electrochemical mechanism of the corrosion of iron = 21
• 1.1. Electrochemical processes = 21
• 1.2. Corrosion in a deaerated medium or corrosion by hydrogen = 23
• 1.3. Corrosion by oxygen = 25
• 1.3.1. Electrochemical mechanism = 25
• 1.3.2. Dilferentialoxygenconcentration = 26
• 2. Action of carbon dioxide = 27
• 2.1. CaO／CO₂ equilibrium - Aggressive action on CaCO₃ = 27
• 2.2. General study of equilibrium = 28
• 2.3. Graphic representations = 29
• 2.3.1. TILLMANS method = 29
• 2.3.2. LANGELIER method and HOOVER diagram = 29
• 2.3.3. HALLOPEAU method = 30
• 2.3.4. FRANQUIN & MARECAUX diagram = 30
• 2.3.5. LEGRAND AND POIRIER method = 30
• 3. Formation of protective films and passivation = 31
• 3.1. Spontaneous formation of protective films = 31
• 3.1.1. Influenceofthecalcicalkalinityofthewater = 31
• 3.1.2. Magnetite film = 32
• 3.2. Inhibition and passivation = 33
• 3.3. Principles of protection against corrosion = 33
• 3.4. Cathodic protection = 34
• 4. Secondary factors in corrosion = 35
• 4.1. Influence of mineral content(sulphates, etc.) = 35
• 4.2. Influence of temperature on aerated water = 37
• 4.3. Influence of microorganisms = 38
• 4.4. Influence of the surface condition and cleanness of the water = 39
• 4.5. Influence of pH = 40
• 4.6. Damage due to flow velocity = 40
• 5. Corrosion of stainless steels = 41
• 5.1. Definitions = 41
• 5.2. Corrosion of stainless steels in a liquid medium = 42
• 5.3. Various forms of corrosion of stainless steel = 43
• 5.3.1. General corrosion = 43
• 5.3.2. Intergranular corrosion = 43
• 5.3.3. Pitting = 43
• 5.3.4. Cavity corrosion = 44
• 5.3.5. Stress corrosion = 44
• 5.3.6. Special types of corrosion = 45
• 5.4. Use of stainless steel = 45
• 5.5. Choice of a stainless steel = 46
• 6. Degradation of concrete = 47
• 6.1. Mechanical causes = 47
• 6.2. Chemical causes = 48
• 7. Corrosion of non-ferrous metals = 51
• 7.1. Aluminium = 51
• 7.2. Copper = 52
• 7.3. Lead = 52
• 7.4. Galvanized steel = 52
• 7.5. Brass = 53
• 8. Action of seawater = 54
• 8.1. Corrosiveness and formation of scale = 54
• 8.2. Protection against formation of scale = 54
• 8.3. Protection against corrosion = 54
• 8.3.1. Structural measures = 54
• 8.3.2. Continuing measures = 55
• 8.4. Protection against organic fouling = 55
• CHAPTER 3. THEORY OF THE MAIN TREATMENT PROCESSES = 57
• 1. Physico-chemical processes = 57
• 1.1. Removal of suspended solids and colloids = 57
• 1.1.1. General remarks = 57
• 1.1.2. Coagulation and flocculation = 61
• 1.1.3. Settling and clarification = 65
• A. Settling of granular particles = 65
• B. Flocculant settling = 68
• C. Zone settling of flocculated particles = 69
• D. General design principles for settling tanks and clarifiers = 71
• E. Settling tank and clarifier construction = 73
• F. Plate-type settling tanks and clarifiers = 74
• 1.1.4. Flotation = 76
• 1.1.5. Filtration = 78
• A. Surface filtration = 78
• B. Filtration through a thick medium = 79
• C. Filtration in depth = 80
• 1.2. Removal of dissolved matter = 82
• 1.2.1. Separation by membranes = 82
• A. Semi-permeable membranes = 82
• B. Dialysis membranes = 86
• 1.2.2. Adsorption = 86
• 1.2.3. Ion exchange = 87
• A. Examination of the basic ion exchange reaction = 87
• B. Methods of regeneration = 91
• 1.3. Liquid-liquid separation = 92
• 1.4. Chemical processes = 93
• 1.4.1. Precipitation = 93
• 1.4.2. Neutralization = 94
• 1.4.3. Oxidation and reduction = 95
• 2. Biological processes = 96
• 2.1. Growth of a bacterial culture = 97
• 2.2. Evaluation of organic pollution = 98
• 2.3. Aerobic treatment = 100
• 2.4. Anaerobic treatment : digestion = 105
• 2.5. Bacterial oxidation-reduction = 106
• Part Two : Treatment Plant and Processes = 109
• CHAPTER 4. PRELIMINARY TREATMENT = 111
• 1 Screening = 111
• 1.1. Various types of bar screens = 112
• 1.2. Automatic control and protection of mechanical screens = 115
• 1.3. Flow rates and head loss. Clogging = 116
• 2. Comminution = 117
• 3. Grit removal = 123
• 4. Desilting = 123
• 5. Oil and grease removal = 124
• 6. Fine straining = 129
• 7. Extraction and treatment of grit and trash from waste water = 132
• CHAPTER 5. COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION IN WATER TREATMENT = 135
• 1. General information = 135
• 2. Coagulation = 136
• 2.1. Main coagulants = 136
• 2.1.1. Aluminium salts = 136
• 2.1.2. Iron salts = 137
• 2.1.3. Other coagulants = 138
• 2.2. Coagulation procedure = 139
• 3. Flocculation = 141
• 3.1. Flocculating agents = 141
• 3.1.1. Activated silica = 141
• 3.1.2. Other inorganic flocculation aids = 142
• 3.1.3. Organic flocculation aids = 142
• 3.2. Flocculation procedure = 144
• CHAPTER 6. CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION = 147
• 1. Principles of precipitation processes = 147
• 1.1. Elimination of calcium and magnesium = 147
• 1.1.1. Principal methods = 147
• a) Carbonate removal by lime = 147
• b) Use of sodium carbonate = 149
• c) Precipitation with caustic soda = 149
• 1.1.2. Basic data for calculation and monitoring of precipitation = 149
• 1.2. Silica elimination = 151
• 1.3. Elimination of salts from metal finishing effluents = 152
• 1.4. Treatment of brines = 152
• 1.5. Precipitation of metallic hydroxides = 154
• 2. Precipitation equipment = 154
• 2.1. Cold-process precipitation of calcium and magnesium = 154
• 2.1.1. Sludge recirculation units = 155
• 2.1.2. Sludge blanket units = 155
• 2.1.3. Granular contact units = 155
• 2.2. Equipment for hot-process carbonate and silica removal - the Thermo-Circulator = 157
• CHAPTER 7. SETTLING AND FLOTATION = 159
• 1. Principal types of settling = 159
• 1.1. Static settling = 159
• 1.2. Sludge contact clarification = 160
• 1.3. Application of plate settling to sludge contact clarifiers = 161
• 1.4. Super-accelerated clarification = 163
• 2. Settling tanks = 163
• 2.1. Static settling tanks = 164
• 2.1.1. Static settling tanks without scraping systems = 164
• a) Ordinary cylindrical settling tanks with conical bottoms = 164
• b) Horizontal-flow static settling tanks = 165
• c) Plate-type static settling tanks = 165
• 2.1.2. Static settling tanks with mechanical sludge scrapers = 166
• a) Circular settling tanks = 166
• b) Longitudinal rectangular settling tanks = 169
• 2.1.3. Static settling tanks with sludge suction = 170
• 2.2. Sludge contact settling tanks = 172
• 2.2.1. General remarks = 172
• 2.2.2. Settling tanks with sludge recirculation = 174
• a) The Circulator clarifier = 174
• b) The Turbocirculator clarifier = 175
• c) The Accelator clarifier = 176
• d) The RPS plate settling tank = 177
• 2.2.3. Sludge blanket clarifiers = 178
• a) Behaviour of a sludge blanket = 178
• b) The Pulsator clarifier = 179
• c) The plate-type Pulsator clarifier = 181
• d) The Super pulsator = 182
• 2.3. Ancillary equipment for settling tanks = 184
• 2.3.1. Sludge removal arrangements = 184
• 2.3.2. Scrapers for sludge and surface scum = 186
• 3. Flotation = 188
• 3.1. Principal flotation systems = 188
• 3.1.1. Spontaneous flotation = 189
• 3.1.2. Mechanical flotation = 190
• 3.1.3. Flotation using blown air = 190
• 3.1.4. Flotation using dissolved air = 191
• 4. Flotation units = 196
• 4.1. General technology = 196
• 4.2. The Flotazur B = 199
• 4.3. The Sediflotazur = 200
• 4.4. The Sediflotor = 201
• 4.5. The Flotazur R = 201
• CHAPTER 8. AEROBIC BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES = 203
• 1. Biological filters = 203
• 1.1 Theoretical considerations = 204
• 1.2. Conventional-media biological filters = 205
• 1.3. Plastic-filled biological filters = 208
• 1.4. Specific problems = 210
• 2. Activated sludge = 211
• 2.1. Plant loading = 212
• 2.2. The main activated sludge treatment systems = 214
• 2.2.1. Separate-tank systems = 214
• 2.2.2. The Oxyrapid = 216
• 2.2.3. The Aero-Accelator = 219
• 2.2.4. Function of the final clarifier = 220
• 2.3. Aeration systems = 222
• 2.3.1. Criteria and comparison of aeration systems = 222
• 2.3.2. Surface aeration = 224
• 2.3.3. Compressed air aeration = 227
• 2.3.4. Mixed aeration : the Vortimix aerator = 229
• 2.3.5. Use of pure oxygen = 230
• 3. Biological treatability of waste waters = 232
• 3.1. Pilot laboratory units = 233
• 3.2. Manometric methods = 234
• 4. Control of biological processes = 236
• 4.1. Purpose of control = 236
• 4.2 Principle of control = 237
• 4.3. Practical applications = 240
• 4.3.1. Control of oxygen input = 240
• 4.3.2. Control of the sludge mass = 242
• 4.3.3. Control of pollution load admitted = 243
• 4.3.4. Control of a pure oxygen treatment system = 244
• CHAPTER 9. WATER FILTRATION = 245
• 1. General = 245
• A. Filtering mechanisms = 245
• B. Clogging and washing of the filter material = 246
• C. Choice of filtering method = 247
• 2. Surface filtration = 247
• 2.1. Filtration through thin media = 247
• 2.2. Filtration through thick porous media = 249
• 2.3. Filtration through precoated supporting media = 250
• 3. Filtration through a filter bed = 254
• 3.1. General = 254
• 3.2. Slow filtration = 255
• 3.3. Rapid filtration = 255
• 3.3.1 Methods of rapid filtration = 255
• 3.3.2. The porous medium = 259
• 3.3.3. The use of porous media = 265
• A. Downward filtration through a single heterogeneous layer = 265
• B. Downward filtration through a uniform layer = 266
• C. Filtration through a multi-layer filter bed = 267
• 3.4. Washing = 269
• 3.4.1. Methods of washing = 269
• 3.4.2. Frequency of washing = 271
• 3.4.3. Consumption of wash-water = 271
• 3.4.4. Choice of nozzles = 272
• 3.4.5. Quantities of suspended solids which can be removed by filtration = 273
• 4. Pressure filters = 274
• 4.1. Vertical filters washed by water alone = 274
• 4.2. Vertical filters designed for washing by air and water = 275
• 4.2.1. Filters with a single uniform layer washed simultaneously by air and water = 275
• 4.2.2. Single and double-layer filters washed successively by air and water = 277
• 4.2.3. U. H. R. filters = 277
• 4.2.4. Double and triple towers = 278
• 4.2.5. Reverse-current filters = 279
• 4.3. Horizontal filters = 282
• 5. Open filters = 282
• 5.1. Rapid filters = 283
• 5.1.1. Aquazur T and N filters = 283
• 5.1.2. Mediazur T and N filters = 289
• 5.1.3. Mediazur G filters = 290
• 5.2. High-rate filters = 291
• 5.2.1. Aquazur V filters = 291
• 5.2.2. Mediazur V filters = 295
• 5.2.3. Mediazur GH filters = 296
• 5.2.4. D2F filters = 297
• 5.3. Valveless self-washing filters = 298
• 5.4. Dry filters = 299
• 6. Filter control = 300
• 6.1. Variable-level, constant-output filters = 300
• 6.2. Constant-output filters = 301
• 6.2.1. Filter controllers = 301
• A. Hydraulic controller = 301
• B Electronic controller = 303
• 6.2.2. Controlling a battery of filters = 304
• 6.3. Declining rate filters = 309
• 7. Monitoring and automation = 311
• 7.1. Monitoring equipment = 311
• 7.2. Automation = 312
• CHAPTER 10. ION EXCHANGE = 313
• 1. Properties of an ion exchange material = 313
• 2. Ion exchange vocabulary = 314
• 3. Main types of ion exchangers = 315
• 3.1. Cation exchangers = 315
• 3.2. Anion exchangers = 317
• 4. Use of ion exchangers = 319
• 4.1. Fixed beds with downward flow regeneration = 319
• 4.1.1. Softening = 321
• 4.1.2. Carbonate removal by ion exchange resins = 321
• 4.1.3. Total deionization = 322
• 4.2. Back-flow regeneration : use of stratified beds = 328
• 4.3. Mixed bed installation = 332
• 4.4. Moving-bed ion exchange processes = 333
• 5. Performance checks and additional treatments = 338
• 5.1. Checking the performance of a deionization plant = 338
• 5.2. Removal of organic matter by adsorbent resins = 338
• 5.3. Disinfection of ion exchangers = 340
• CHAPTER 11. ADSORPTION AND ADSORBENTS = 341
• 1. Main adsorbents = 341
• 1.1. .Activated carbon = 341
• 1.2. Other adsorbents = 342
• 2. Use of activated carbon = 343
• 2.1 Powdered carbon = 343
• 2.2. Granular carbon = 345
• 2.2.1. Characteristics = 345
• 2.2.2. Carbon bed technology = 345
• 2.2.3. Adsorptive capacity of carbon = 347
• 2.2.4. Regeneration = 347
• 2.3. Combined use of powdered and granular carbon = 348
• 2.4. Main applications = 348
• CHAPTER 12. SEPARATION BY MEMBRANES = 349
• 1. Reverse osmosis = 349
• 1.1. Osmosis and reverse osmosis = 349
• 1.2. Reverse osmosis membranes = 351
• 1.2.1. Spirally-wound modules = 352
• 1.2.2. Hollow fibre modules = 354
• 1.3. Reverse osmosis plants = 355
• 1.4. Applications of reverse osmosis = 358
• 1.4.1. Drinking water supply = 358
• 1.4.2. Production of very high-quality water = 358
• 1.4.3. Sea-water desalination = 360
• 1.4.4. Treatment of industrial effluent = 360
• 1.4.5. Tertiary treatment = 361
• 2. Ultra filtration = 361
• 3. Electrodialysis = 363
• CHAPTER 13. GAS-LIQUID EXCHANGES = 367
• 1. Theory of gas-liquid exchange = 367
• 2. Gas-liquid exchange equipment = 369
• 2.1. Static aerators and mixers = 369
• 2.1.1. Spraying = 370
• 2.1.2. Trickling of water in air = 370
• 2.1.3. Trickling of water through a contact mass - biological filter = 372
• 2.1.4. Deep tank bubble aeration = 372
• 2.1.5. Bubble aeration in a shallow depth of Water = 372
• 2.1.6. Gas diffusion = 373
• 2.2. Mechanical aerators and mixers = 373
• 2.3. Pressurized aerators = 374
• 2.4. Gas entrainment type deaerators = 375
• 2.4.1. CO₂ eliminator = 376
• 2.4.2. Steam stripping = 377
• 2.5. Thermal deaerators = 377
• 2.5.1. Deaerating tank = 378
• 2.5.2. Dome type deaerator = 380
• 2.5.3. Vertical tank deaerator = 381
• 2.6. Vacuum deaerators = 382
• 2.7. Combined deaeration = 384
• CHAPTER 14. CHEMICAL CORRECTION AND CONDITIONING OF WATER = 385
• 1. Applications = 385
• 1.1. Corrosion prevention = 385
• 1.2. Scale prevention = 386
• 1.3. Prevention of organic growths and various types of fouling = 387
• 1.4. .Neutralizationofvariouseffiuents = 387
• 2. Main processes = 387
• 2.1. pH correction(neutralization) = 387
• 2.1.1. Addition of basic reagents = 387
• 2.1.2. Filtration through alkaline-earth media = 388
• 2.1.3. Acidification = 390
• 2.1.4. Reciprocal neutralization = 390
• 2.2. Remineralization = 390
• 2.3. Precipitation inhibition = 392
• 2.4. Reduction of oxygen = 395
• 2.5. Corrosion inhibition = 396
• 2.5.1. Simple inhibitors = 396
• 2.5.2. Compound inhibitors = 397
• 2.6. Use of miscellaneous agents = 399
• A. Biocides = 399
• B. Cleaning agents = 400
• CHAPTER 15. OXIDATION DISINFECTION = 401
• 1. Oxidation and disinfection by chlorine = 401
• 1.1. The action of chlorine = 401
• 1.2. The use of chlorine = 402
• 1.2.1. Prechlorination = 402
• 1.2.2. The disinfection of drinking water = 403
• 1.2.3. Control and storage = 404
• 2. Oxidation and disinfection by chlorine derivatives = 405
• 2.1. Chloramines = 405
• 2.2. Chlorine dioxide = 405
• 2.3. Sodium hypochlorite = 407
• 3. Electrochlorination = 408
• 3.1. Principle = 408
• 3.2. Electrolyser design = 408
• 3.3. Operating conditions = 409
• 4. Oxidation and disinfection by ozone = 410
• 4.1. Characteristics and production of ozone = 410
• 4.1.1. Physical characteristics = 410
• 4.1.2. .Principles of ozone production = 410
• 4.1.3. Types of ozonizers = 411
• 4.1.4. Production technology = 413
• 4.2. Application of ozone = 420
• 4.2.1. Principle = 420
• 4.2.2. Water／ozone contact = 421
• 4.2.3. Destruction of residual ozone = 423
• 4.2.4. Precautions when using ozone = 423
• 4.2.5. Analytical methods for ozone measurement = 424
• 5. Other oxidation and disinfection processes = 425
• 5.1. Potassium permanganate = 425
• 5.2. Bromine = 420
• 5.3. Chlorine／bromine mixtures = 420
• 5.4. Ultra-violet radiation = 420
• 5.5. Silver = 421
• 5.6. Ionizing radiation = 420
• CHAPTER 16. NATURE, STABILIZATION, THICKENING AND CONDITIONING OF SLUDGE = 427
• 1. Origin and nature of the different types of sludge = 427
• 1.1. Classification = 427
• 1.2. Factors characterizing the nature of a sludge = 430
• 1.3. Factorscharacterizingthestructureofthesludge = 431
• 1.4. Factors characterizing the behaviour of a sludge during dewatering = 433
• 2. Disposal of treated sludge - By-products = 433
• 3. Objectives of sludge treatment and the processes used = 437
• 4. Sludge stabilization = 437
• 4.1. Anaerobic digestion = 437
• 4.1.1. Gas production - Temperature and retention time = 439
• 4.1.2. Parameters affecting the efficiency of anaerobic digestion = 440
• 4.1.3. Results of treatment - Advantages of digestion = 441
• 4.1.4. One- or two-stage digestion - Design principles = 442
• 4.1.5. Design of the digesters = 444
• A. Medium-rate digestion = 444
• B. High-rate digestion = 446
• C. Mixing systems in the digesters = 447
• D. Heating of digesters = 449
• 4.1.6. Starting and operating a digestion unit = 450
• 4.2. Aerobic stabilization of sludge = 452
• 4.2.1. Anaerobic digestion and aerobic stabilization = 452
• 4.2.2. Criteria for assessing good stabilization = 454
• 4.2.3. Designing a sludge-stabilizing unit = 455
• 4.2.4. Aerobic stabilization procedure = 456
• 4.3. Chemical stabilization of sludge = 457
• 4.4. Pasteurization = 458
• 4.5. Irradiation = 459
• 5. Sludge thickening = 459
• 5.1. Thickening by settling = 460
• 5.1.1. Non-scraped thickeners = 462
• 5.1.2. Mechanized thickeners = 462
• 5.l.3. Construction of thickeners = 464
• 5.2. Thickening with elutriation = 465
• 5.3. Thickening by flotation = 465
• 6. Conditioning = 468
• 6.1. Chemical conditioning = 469
• 6.1.1. Mineral reagents = 469
• 6.1.2. polyelectrolytes = 472
• 6.2. Thermal conditioning = 474
• 6.2.1. Heating the sludge = 474
• 6.2.2. Sludge heating procedure = 477
• 6.2.3. Wet combustion = 479
• 6.3. Other methods of conditioning = 480
• 6.3.1. Freezing = 480
• 6.3.2. Conditioning with inert additives = 480
• 6.3.3. Conditioning by means of solvents = 480
• CHAPTER 17. SLUDGE DEWATERING, DRYING, AND INCINERATION = 481
• 1. Dewatering = 481
• 1.1. Filtration = 481
• 1.1.1. Numerical characterization of filtrability = 481
• A. Specific filtration resistance = 481
• B. Compressibility = 483
• C. Maximum dryness = 483
• 1.1.2. Drying beds = 485
• 1.1.3. Filter bags = 487
• 1.1.4. Vacuum filtration = 488
• A. Description and mode of operation = 488
• B. Output capacity = 491
• C. Calculating the rate of chemical conditioning = 492
• D. Performance = 493
• E. Vacuum filtration practice = 494
• 1.1.5. Filterbelt presses = 495
• A. Description and operation = 496
• B. Performance = 498
• 1.1.6. Pressure filtration = 501
• A. Description and mode of operation = 501
• B. Filtration cycle = 502
• C. Filtration capacity = 504
• D. Performance = 506
• E. Pressure filtration practice = 509
• 1.1.7. Automated thin-cake pressure filtration = 510
• 1.1.8. Continuous presses = 510
• A. Screw type = 510
• B. Disc type = 510
• 1.2. Centrifugation = 511
• 1.2.1. Centrifugation and centrifugability = 511
• 1.2.2. Continuous decanters = 513
• A. Constructional parameters = 513
• B. Operating parameters = 516
• C. Performance = 516
• D. Continuous decanter practice = 518
• 1.2.3. Accelerated sludge thickening by centrifugation = 519
• 1.3. Mobile dewatering units = 520
• 2. Drying and incineration = 521
• 2.1. Heat balance = 522
• 2.2. Main components of a drying and incineration plant = 523
• 2.3. Phases and methods of drying = 524
• 2.4. Principal types of furnaces = 526
• 2.4.1. Multiple-hearth furnace = 526
• 2.4.2. Rotary kilns = 528
• 2.4.3. Fluidized bed incinerators = 530
• 2.4.4. Flash driers = 532
• 2.5. Pyrolysis = 532
• 2.6. Flue gas treatment = 533
• 2.7 Sludge and domestic refuse = 534
• CHAPTER 18. REAGENT STORAGE AND FEEDING = 535
• 1. Principal reagents used in water treatment = 535
• 1.1. Specific reagents = 535
• 1.2. General reagents = 535
• 2. Storage of reagents = 542
• 2.1. Powder reagents = 542
• 2.2. Liquid reagents = 544
• 2.3. Gaseous reagents = 545
• 3. Preparation of solutions and suspensions = 546
• 4. Reagent feeding = 548
• 4.1. Distribution in liquid form = 548
• 4.1.1. Dosing-pump feeding = 548
• 4.1.2. Gravity-feed dosing = 551
• 4.1.3. Displacement feed = 553
• 4.2. Measurement and distribution of reagents in dry powder form = 555
• 4.2.1. Volumetric feeders = 555
• 4.2.2. Gravimetric feeders = 558
• 4.3. Feeding of reagents in gaseous form = 560
• 4.3.1. Chlorine supply to dosing equipment = 560
• 4.3.2. Chlorinators operating under a vacuum = 563
• 4.4. Monitoring the rate of reagent feed by the flow of water and the value of a physico-chemical parameter = 565
• CHAPTER 19. MEASUREMENT, MONITORING, CONTROL AND AUTOMATION = 567
• 1. Automatic measurement and monitoring processes in water treatment = 567
• 1.1. General = 567
• 1.2. Automatic measurement and monitoring of common parameters = 570
• 1.3. Automatic measurement and monitoring of specific parameters = 572
• 1.3.1. Automatic physical methods = 573
• 1.3.2. Automatic chemical methods = 581
• 1.3.3. Automatic analysing station = 583
• 1.3.4. Ichthyo-testing = 584
• 2. Control = 585
• 2.1. General principles = 585
• 2.2. The four modes of control = 586
• 2.3. Choice of control method = 589
• 2.3.1. Choice of control mode = 589
• 2.3.2. Choice between electric and pneumatic controllers = 590
• 3. Automation = 591
• 3.1. General remarks = 591
• 3.2. Different forms of automatic operation = 591
• 3.3. Programmable automatic unit = 593
• 3.4. Industrial data processing = 595
• Part Three : Treatment Methods According to the Nature and the Final Use of the Water = 597
• CHAPTER 20. DRINKING WATER TREATMENT = 597
• 1. Choice between sources of supply = 599
• 1.1. Quality of the available water = 599
• 1.2. Quantity of water required = 604
• 1.3. Cost of finding water = 604
• 2. Impurities found in water for human consumption = 605
• 2.1. Mineral pollutants and micropollutants = 605
• 2.2. Organic pollutants and micropollutants = 606
• 2.2.1. Phenols and derivatives = 606
• 2.2.2. Hydrocarbons = 606
• 2.2.3. Detergents = 607
• 2.2.4. Pesticides and plant-health products = 609
• 2.3. Biological pollutants and micropollutants = 610
• 2.3.1. Microorganisms and viruses = 610
• 2.3.2. Secretions of microfauna and microflora = 610
• 2.4. Impurities from reagents used in water treatment = 611
• 3. Principles of drinking water treatment = 611
• 3.1. General processes = 611
• 3.1.1. Treatment at water intakes = 611
• 3.1.2. Raw water storage = 614
• 3.1.3. Prechlorination = 614
• 3.1.4. Aeration = 615
• 3.1.5 Clarification = 616
• a) Clarification by complete coagulation, flocculation, settling and filtration = 617
• b) Clarification by partial coagulation, flocculation and filtration = 619
• 3.1.6. Disinfection = 620
• 3.1.7. Adsorption = 622
• 3.1.8. Sludge treatment = 623
• 3.2. Specific forms of treatment to remove and correct the constituents of natural water = 624
• 3.2.1. Removal or iron and manganese = 624
• a) Natural state of iron and manganese = 624
• b) Oxidation and filtration = 626
• b1) Iron removal without clarification = 627
• b2) Iron removal with clarification = 629
• b3) Removal of manganese = 629
• c) Treatment combined with carbonate = 632
• d) Biological treatment = 634
• e) Filtration using special media = 634
• f) Powdered magnesia and diatomaceous earth = 635
• 3.2.2. Neutralization - remineralization = 635
• 3.2.3. Carbonate removal - softening = 636
• 3.2.4. Removal of sulphates and chlorides = 637
• 3.2.5. Fluoridation and fluoride removal = 637
• 3.2.6. Removal of nitrogen and its compounds = 639
• 3.2.7. Destruction of algae and plankton = 640
• 3.2.8. Elimination of organic matter = 642
• 3.2.9. Deodorization of water = 643
• 3.3.10. Elimination of micropollutants = 646
• A. Phenols and phenol compounds = 646
• B. Hydrocarbons = 647
• C. Detergents = 647
• D. Pesticides = 649
• E. Heavy metals = 650
• 4. Purification works = 651
• 4.1. Combined units and standard plant = 651
• 4.1.1. GSF plants = 651
• 4.1.2. Bidondo units = 652
• 4.4.3. Aquazur plants = 653
• 4.2. Medium-sized and large plants = 656
• 4.2.1. Principles = 656
• 4.2.2. Clarification of polluted surface water or underground water = 657
• a) Slightly turbid water = 657
• b) Water of average turbidity = 658
• c) Heavily polluted water = 662
• 4.2.3. Treatment of slightly polluted water = 665
• 4.2.4. Treatment for aerated beverages = 666
• CHAPTER 21. SWIMMING POOL WATER TREATMENT = 669
• 1. Principles = 669
• 2. French regulations = 669
• 2.1. Recirculation rate and renewal of water = 670
• 2.2. Water recirculation = 671
• 2.3. Quality of water in pools = 672
• 3. Treatment processes for closed circuit swimming pool water = 673
• 3.1. Prefiltration - pumping = 673
• 3.2. Filtration = 673
• 3.3. Disinfection = 675
• 3.3.1. Chlorine and derivatives = 676
• 3.3.2. Bromine = 676
• 3.3.3. Ozone = 676
• 3.3.4. Other processes = 677
• 3.3.5. Destruction of algae = 679
• 3.4. Special cases = 679
• 3.5. Cleaning the pool = 680
• CHAPTER 22. TREATMENT OF BOILER AND COOLING SYSTEM WATER = 681
• 1. Boiler-water treatment = 681
• 1.1. Quality requirements for boiler-water = 681
• 1.1.1. Boiler-water circuits = 681
• 1.1.2. Difficulties caused by impurities in the make-up water = 682
• 1.1.3. Standards for water for use in steam generating plant = 683
• 1.1.4. Difficulties caused by impurities in condensates = 685
• 1.2. Purification and conditioning = 686
• 1.2.1. Carbonate removal and softening = 688
• 1.2.2. Total deionization of make-up water = 689
• 1.2.3. Treatment of condensate = 690
• 2. Cooling circuits = 695
• 2.1. Types of cooling systems = 695
• 2.2. Semi-open circuits = 696
• 2.3. Scaling and corrosion = 698
• 2.3.1. Equilibrium techniques = 698
• 2.3.2. Scale-inhibiting processes = 699
• 2.3.3. Corrosion-inhibiting processes = 700
• 2.3.4. Waste disposal = 700
• 2.4. Fouling = 701
• 2.5. How to design a cooling circuit = 703
• CHAPTER 23. TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL PROCESS WATER = 705
• 1. General problems = 705
• 1.1. Basic functions of water in industry = 706
• 1.2. Typical quantities of water used by industry = 706
• 1.3. Industrial process water deterioration = 707
• 1.4 Make-up waters = 707
• 1.5. Conditioning = 709
• 1.6. Reuse and recirculation = 709
• 1.6.1. Recirculation rate = 710
• 1.6.2. Reuse of waste water = 711
• 1.7. Organization of systems = 712
• 2. Metallurgical industries = 713
• 2.1. Gas scrubbing = 713
• 2.2. Hydrometallurgy = 713
• 2.3. Iron and steel = 716
• 2.4. Copper production = 719
• 2.5. Nickel production = 720
• 2.6. Zinc production = 721
• 2.7. Aluminium production = 721
• 2.8. Uranium production = 722
• 3. The paper industry = 723
• 4. The food and agricultural industries = 724
• 4.1. Sugar factories and sugar refineries = 724
• 4.2. Dairy industries = 725
• 4.3. Breweries, distilleries and aerated drink plants = 726
• 4.4. Vegetable canneries = 726
• 5. Other industries = 727
• 5.1. The textile industry = 727
• 5.2. Chemical and pharmaceutical industries = 727
• 5.3. Manufacture of electronic components = 727
• 5.4. Metal finishing = 728
• 5.5. Oil = 729
• 5.6. Miscellaneous industries using deionized water = 729
• 6. Brine purification = 729
• CHAPTER 24. TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC SEWAGE = 731
• 1. Nature of domestic sewage = 731
• 1.1. Composition = 731
• 1.2. Assessment of domestic sewage = 731
• 1.3. Objectives = 735
• 1.4. The main processes and their purification efficiencies = 736
• 2. Biological treatment = 739
• 2.1. General = 739
• 2.2. Extended aeration type treatment plants = 739
• 2.2.1. Type MA plant = 740
• 2.2.2. Minibloc AP plant = 741
• 2.2.3. Type MV plant = 742
• 2.2.4. Type UI plant = 742
• 2.2.5. Type AOS plant = 745
• 2.2.6. Type AC plant = 745
• 2.2.7. Oxidation ditches : carrousels = 748
• 2.3. Plants using medium-load purification followed by aerobic stabilization = 746
• 2.3.1. SA combinations = 746
• 2.3.2. Type SAM plant = 748
• 2.3.3. Minibloc AC plant = 748
• 2.4. Medium- or high-load plants with anaerobic digestion or direct sludge treatment = 749
• 2.4.1. General design = 749
• 2.4.2. Monitoring and operation = 751
• 2.4.3. Large plants = 753
• A. Common arrangements = 753
• B. Aeration facilities = 754
• C. Flow control = 757
• D. Measurements and closed loop control facilities = 758
• E. Power autonomy = 764
• 2.4.4. Comparison of the main sludge treatment systems = 765
• 2.4.5. Sludge handling = 766
• 2.4.6. Environmental nuisance control = 769
• 2.4.7. Examples of large plants = 771
• 2.5. Other biological treatment systems = 781
• 2.5.1. Treatment plants using primary settling, conventional-media biological filters and anaerobic sludge digestion = 781
• 2.5.2. Treatment plants using plastic filled biological filters associated with activated sludge treatment = 781
• 2.5.3. Treatment plants using pure oxygen = 783
• 2.5.4 Natural aerobic lagooning : aerated lagooning = 785
• 2.6. Variable population plants = 787
• 3. Physicochemical treatments = 788
• 3.1. General = 788
• 3.2. Flocculation and physical separation = 791
• 3.3. Combination of physicochemical and biological processes = 792
• 3.4. Physicochemical treatment sludge = 795
• 4. Tertiary treatment = 798
• 4.1. General = 798
• 4.2. Polishing techniques = 798
• 4.3. Phosphate removal = 800
• 4.4. Nitrogen elimination = 801
• 4.5. Elimination of nonbiodegradable pollution = 805
• 4.6. Disinfection = 805
• CHAPTER 25. TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS = 807
• 1. General = 807
• 1.1. Specific pollution factors = 807
• 1.2. Characterization of effluents = 809
• 1.3. Separate treatments = 809
• 1.4. Preliminary treatment = 810
• 1.5. Physicochemical treatment = 810
• 1.6. Biological treatment = 811
• 1.7. Elimination of nonbiodegradable COD = 812
• 1.8. Industrial sludge = 812
• 2. Agricultural and foodstuffs industries = 813
• 2.1. Dairy products industries = 813
• 2.2. Vegetable and fruit canning factories = 816
• 2.3. Abattoirs and meat packing factories = 816
• 2.4. Breweries and fermentation industries = 819
• 2.5. Sugar refineries and distilleries = 820
• 2.6. Starch factories and potato process industries = 822
• 2.7. Oil mills and soap factories = 823
• 2.8. Tanneries and leather industries = 824
• 2.9. Piggeries and stock raising effluents = 824
• 3. Pulp and paper industries = 825
• 3.1. Paper and board mills = 825
• 3.2. Paper pulp mills = 826
• 3.2.1. Nature of effluents = 826
• 3.2.2. Purification treatment = 828
• 4. Textile industries = 829
• 4.1. Nature of discharges = 829
• 4.2. Order of magnitude of pollution loads = 830
• 4.3. Purification techniques = 831
• 5. Petroleum industry = 832
• 5.1. Main sources of pollution = 832
• 5.2. Treatment processes = 834
• 6. Synthetic chemicals industry = 837
• 6.1. Complete treatment systems = 837
• 6.1.1. Physicochemical preliminary treatment = 837
• 6.1.2. Secondary biological purification = 838
• 6.1.3. Secondary physicochemical purification = 840
• 6.2. Manufacture of polymers and fibres = 840
• 7. Metallurgical and associated industries = 842
• 7.1. Iron and steel industry = 842
• 7.2. Aluminium metallurgy = 844
• 7.3. Metal finishing industries = 845
• 7.3.1. Metal finishing technology : pollution caused = 845
• 7.3.2. Pollution prevention and product reclamation = 848
• 7.3.3. Purification of residual pollution = 849
• A. Classification of forms of pollution and treatment = 849
• B. Basic treatment reactions = 849
• C. Treatment systems = 851
• D. Centralized detoxification plants = 850
• 7.4. Purification of used soluble oils = 856
• 8. Miscellaneous industries = 858
• 8.1. Fossil fuel power plants = 858
• 8.2. Nuclear industry = 859
• 8.3. Fertilizer and phosphoric acid manufacture = 861
• 8.4. Effluents from other industries = 862
• Part Four : Water : General Information = 865
• CHAPTER 26. THE CHEMISTRY OF WATER AND REAGENTS = 867
• 1. Chemistry = 867
• 2. Characteristic constants of solutions = 870
• 3. Characteristic constants of gases = 887
• CHAPTER 27. METHODS OF ANALYSIS = 894
• 1. General = 894
• 1.1. Milliequivalent and degree = 894
• 1.2. Hardness and alkalinity = 896
• 1.3. List of French standards - tests for water = 898
• 2. Taking samples for analysis = 902
• 2.1. Drinking water = 902
• 2.2. Waste water = 902
• 2.3. Preservation of samples = 904
• 3. Rapid field analysis = 904
• 3.1. Colorimetric analysis methods - analytical methods 201-220 = 905
• 3.2. Volumetric analysis methods - analytical methods 301-315, 322, and 324 = 908
• 4. Physical methods = 913
• Methods 316 to 318 and 321 = 913
• 5. Presentation and interpretation of analytical results for drinking water = 916
• 5.1. Presentation of results of analysis = 916
• 5.2. Interpretation of results = 917
• 5.3. Unwanted or toxic substances dissolved in water = 921
• 5.4. Chemicals deliberately added to water = 921
• 6. Examination of waste waters - Analytical methods Nos. 401 to 416 = 921
• 7. Examination of filtering materials - Analytical methods Nos. 501 to 509 = 939
• 8. Physicochemical tests for drinking water treatment - Analytical methods Nos. 701 to 712 = 947
• 9. Examination of water treatment sludge - Analytical methods Nos. 801 to 809 = 957
• CHAPTER 28. BIOLOGY = 963
• 1. General remarks = 963
• 2. Concepts of ecology = 963
• 2.1. Definitions = 963
• 2.2. The ecology of lakes : eutrophication = 965
• 2.3. River ecology : biotic indices = 965
• 2.4. Biological tests for pollution = 966
• 3. Principles of classification of living creatures = 967
• 3.1. The bacterial kingdom = 967
• 3.2. The vegetable kingdom = 967
• 3.3. The animal kingdom = 970
• 4. Bacteriology = 972
• 4.1. General characteristics of the bacteria = 972
• 4.2. Pathogenic bacteria found in water = 973
• 4.3. Bacteriological analysis of water = 973
• 4.4. The enzymes = 974
• 4.5. Fermentations = 975
• 4.6. The nitrogen cycle = 975
• 4.7. The sulphur cycle = 978
• 4.8. Bacterial oxidation of iron and of manganese = 979
• 4.9. Bacteria concerned in the obstruction and corrosion of pipe work = 980
• 5. Virology = 981
• 6. Pathogenic organisms other than bacteria = 982
• 7. A study of plankton = 985
• 7.1. Problems due to plankton = 985
• 7.2. Quantitative estimate of plankton = 987
• 7.3. Description of plankton = 988
• 7.3.1. Phytoplankton = 988
• 7.3.2. Zooplankton = 1000
• 8. The microflora and microfauna of activated sludge = 1006
• 8.1. Purifying bacteria = 1006
• 8.2. The bulking of sludge = 1006
• 8.3. Predators = 1007
• Part Five : Formulae = 1013
• CHAPTER 29. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT = 1015
• 1. Systems of units = 1015
• 2. Systeme International d'Unites(International System of Units) = 1015
• 2.1. General principles = 1016
• 2.2. Definitions of basic units and supplementary units = 1017
• 2.3. Basic units. Derived units for frequently occurring quantities = 1018
• 2.4. Units not recommended or to be avoided = 1020
• 3. Si units and imperial or U. S. units - conversions = 1021
• CHAPTER 30. MATHEMATICAL NOTES = 1029
• 1. Algebra and arithmetic = 1029
• 2. Trigonometrical formulae = 1031
• 3. Geometrical formulae = 1032
• 3.1. Plane surfaces = 1032
• 3.2. Surface areas and volumes of solids = 1034
• 4. Length of arcs, chords, sagitta, and areas of segments = 1037
• 5. Common factors in calculations = 1040
• 6. Simple interest = 1041
• 7. Compound interest = 1042
• 8. Repayments = 1043
• 9. Trigonometrical tables = 1044
• CHAPTER 31. HYDRAULICS = 1049
• 1. Guidelines for the estimation of water requirements = 1049
• 2. Head losses through friction in water pipes = 1051
• 2.1. Empirical formulae = 1051
• 2.2. Colebrook formula = 1051
• 2.3. Tables of values of the loss of head J for pipe diameters between 0.04 and 2.5m = 1057
• 3. Local head losses in pipes = 1069
• 4. Design and calculation of negative pressure systems = 1076
• 5. Flow rates for orifices and nozzles = 1077
• 6. Flow of water in channels = 1079
• 7. Weirs = 1082
• 8. Head losses for any fluid = 1086
• 9. Miscellaneous information = 1089
• CHAPTER 32. ELECTRICITY = 1093
• 1. Notations - Units - Symbols = 1093
• 2. Usual definitions and formulae = 1093
• 3. Industrial applications = 1096
• 3.1. General installations = 1096
• 3.2. Motors = 1097
• 4. Numerical values and orders of magnitude = 1102
• CHAPTER 33. HEAT = 1103
• 1. Gas physics and thermodynamics = 1103
• 1.1. Ideal gases = 1103
• 1.2. Water vapour = 1104
• 1.3. Wet gases = 1107
• 2. Heat generation = 1108
• 2.1. Calorific value = 1108
• 2.2. Combustion = 1110
• 3. Heat exchange = 1112
• 3.1. Definitions = 1112
• 3.2. Heat exchangers = 1113
• 4. Numerical data = 1116
• Part Six : Legislation = 1119
• CHAPTER 34. LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS = 1121
• 1. General information = 1121
• 1.1. Works to consult = 1121
• 1.2. Useful addresses = 1123
• 1.2.1. France = 1123
• 1.2.2. Other countries = 1124
• 2. Drinking water and swimming pool water = 1124
• 2.1. Recommendations of W. H. O = 1124
• 2.2. French regulations governing the quality of water for human consumption = 1129
• 2.3. Conditions for using certain substances in drinking water treatment = 1132
• 2.4. Table comparing standards for drinking water quality in the EEC and a few other countries = 1134
• 2.5. Swimming pool regulations = 1138
• 2.5.1. Swimming pools in France = 1138
• 2.5.2. Bathing waters in the EEC = 1139
• 3. Waste waters = 1140
• 3.1. Domestic sewage and industrial effluents in France = 1140
• 3.1.1. Water discharge regulations = 1140
• A. General case = 1140
• B. Particular cases = 1142
• 3.1.2. Sludge of agronomic value produced by water treatment plant = 1142
• 3.2. Table comparing discharge standards in several countries = 1144
• 3.3. Industrial wastes(in France) = 1146
• 4. Various legislation = 1147
• 4.1. Air pollution = 1147
• 4.2. Noise abatement = 1148
• BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA = 1151
• ALPHABETICAL INDEX = 1159