Buddhism, which came from India, spread as a global religion with the goal of seeking universal truth transcending any religion, race, and nationality, and it demonstrated its vitality and dynamic with the religious unity while embracing the changes m...
Buddhism, which came from India, spread as a global religion with the goal of seeking universal truth transcending any religion, race, and nationality, and it demonstrated its vitality and dynamic with the religious unity while embracing the changes made by each cultural and regional situation. In East Asia, Buddhism was a foreign religion, but, since it was imported, Buddhism of East Asia continuously developed better than in its birthplace India, and it remarkably had political, social, and cultural influence on the ancient East Asia for a long time. Buddhism also had an effect on forming ancient Korean architecture, and the Buddhist architecture has been of much account because we can figure out the changeable aspect of the architecture in that the top quality technology was not only adapted to the Buddhist architecture but also those structures were built everywhere with various forms and compositions and because it lasted for long periods of time.
Especially, a tower of the Buddhist architecture, which was considered as the most sacred place that embodied symbolic messages keeping Buddha's bones, was built for the first time in Stupa, India, but a tower in East Asia was so different from the original that it was called the another title, "pagoda" and, despite undergoing sinicizing, it showed a variety of shapes including a multi-level tall tower, so the pagoda of East Asia has been recognized as a unique structure. Based on its own culture, East Asia was more likely to actively accepted the pagoda with a sense of sovereignty, but simultaneously there is another view that focuses on the continuity of religious unity and of symbolic messages although different shapes of pagodas exist as well.
Likewise, regardless of being dualistic views on the introduction and formation of pagoda, there are a kind of dichotomous perspective regarding the formation and development of it in major three countries in East Asia. That is, this stance emphasizes the independent and individual aspects rather than the interrelationship in the process, considering the fact that, when Buddhism was first introduced, wooden pagodas shaping a tall tower were commonly erected but different forms usually featured in three countries in its development process: Brick pagoda in China, stone pagoda in Korea, and wooden pagoda in Japan.
However, examining the ancient pagoda structures of East Asia, it is revealed that they had various forms within a comparable period of time, and the view focusing only on categorizing them by their materials and on their individual aspects of evolution overlooks the actual process of development that the architectural cultures in East Asia made. The reason is that, although the Chinese architectural standard was regarded to be established when the North Dynasty's mixed engineering structure absorbed the South Dynasty's architectural culture based on the developed wooden construction through Sui Tang Dynasty, the development of the brick pagoda which became the mainstream of the Chinese pagoda seems to be the result of wooden material's nondurability and the technology dealing with boulder stones. In addition, the researchers have attributed the development of the Korean stone pagodas to the abundance and the permanence of stone along with the wooden material's nondurability. Still, despite the limitation of materials, the fundamental of the East Asian architecture is its wooden construction, and it is hard to understand that the superior materials caused its development of the pagodas. Recently, the attempts to figure out the characteristics of the architectural culture in East Asia have been made, which highlight basic principles or conceptual approaches beyond the limitation of materials. Thus, we should examine the process in which the pagoda developed by researching the material characteristics of pagodas as well as by investigating the architectural features of them which can be complimentary to the limitation.
This study aims to comprehend the diversity of pagodas, which has been relatively overlooked until now, with a perspective focusing the structural types. This is a part of attempts to understand the distinctiveness based on the universality, and a continuation of tries to realize the process of development overcoming the limitation that the related regions and materials had. Thus, the purpose of this thesis is to design a frame of structural type, not to understand the structural features by premising materials and shapes, and, through this, to examine how each form is interrelated and how the feature of its material is revealed. In addition, an analysis on the architectural technology to solve the structural problems caused by horizontal extension is made as well.
The architectural types of ancient East Asia can be categorized according to the structural types of pagoda construction.
The first type is the dual structural type in which the interior and the exterior structures were separated. It could be a type where the interior structure formed the center and the exterior one was adjunctively built. Also, it could be called a structural type that adopted the most suitable method for the two crucial structures that were necessary for constructing pagoda. In other words, it has the correspondent structure to deliver the normal load to the ground, takes the masonry construction, and adopts post lintel construction that forms a tpye of the shell dealing with the horizontal force, which can be interpreted as a dual composite structure solving the technical limitations at that time. Yet adopting the shape of Stupa that borders western China as well as accepting the affect of Taoism on building towers are regarded as the major causes that cannot be excluded.
The second type is the structural type combining the interior with the exterior by using a masonry construction in which unit members are built up. As for its relationship with the dual structural type, this one is the case where the interior structure is disclosed, and it has the concept to surface the structure itself. In this case, as a way to reduce the weight of the structure that forms vertical load, empty pipes are sometimes placed. This structural type of masonry construction bears the horizontal force by having a trans web frame inserted in it, but, comparing to the sealed interior structure, it is relatively vulnerable to the lateral load. However, this type could maintain spatial characteristic which formed the interior space and was capable of moving to upper level. Although it was unified as a structural type of masonry construction, the attempt to express post-and-lintel construction in the elevation continued to the future generations. Nevertheless, such an attempt was superficial and was not associated with the actual structure, and the principles of masonry construction seems to have been sufficiently reflected in how the windows and doors were arched or how roofs and eaves were made.
As a post-and-lintel construction, the third type combines the interior with the exteriors. Considering the relationship with the dual structural type, it have the exterior structure forming a framework and interpenetrating into the interior, where the structure itself manifests its shape. We can judge that this structure focused on withstanding horizontal force and that it was intended to lighten the structure by removing the massive walls so that it could have an advantage in transmitting the vertical load. Additionally, its central pole is an independent member supporting the upper parts, but it also seems to be a structure bearing lateral load in terms of the entire structure. However, the utilization of space was impossible, therefore the necessity for tall scale was only for symbolic meaning, and, due to the feature of post-and-lintel construction, the length of members functioned as a determinant in plane and height.
The correlation of this structural type can be defined as a responding method to the process that was accompanied when unifying structures into a system, where individual structural principles coexisted. The dual structural type appeared in large-sized pagodas mainly built in the 5-6th century Chinese imperial court, and it is considered to be a predecessor to the unitary structural type in the later large-sized pagoda architecture. Supposedly, the unitary structural type had a tendency to develop into each type depending on where the emphasis is placed. That is, the try to keep the basic multi-level structure and to retain the symbolic meaning of sacred place was commonly continuous, but the attempt to reduce its scale and to optimize its lateral force systematically for the independence and maintenance of pagoda can be found in the post-and-lintel construction while the developments for each level's space and for vertical moving were coordinated into masonry construction for the independence and maintenance of pagoda which could be found in the post-and-lintel construction.
Based on the structural type, analyzing the pagoda architecture of ancient East Asian pagoda was attempted to make a foundation to interpret the stone pagoda of Mireuksa site. The pagoda of Mireuksa is a unique one of Baekje in that it has the top over the basal end. It has been regarded as the origin of Korean stone pagoda, recognized as "the adaptation of wooden pagoda" and treated as the model for the later stone pagodas of Baekje. However, there had been a variety of pagoda structures in Baekje before the stone pagoda of Mireuksa was built in 7th century, so it is assumed that there were several variations in materials through understanding such a structural type. These variations are considered to make a turning point influencing a lot on mainstreaming the later Korean pagoda structures. Interpreting the stone pagoda of Mireuksa as "the adaptation of wooden pagoda" is thought to create a new type according to changing materials for the old pagoda structure, but it is also necessary to analyze the structural features or elevations more deeply.
Moreover, as the stone pagoda of Mireuksa was broken down to be investigated, it was found that the pagoda has no exterior member, and the clues were provided that encouraged the researchs on the interior composition beyond the old studies. Accordingly, analyzing the structural type of the pagoda of Mireuksa site could have a meaning to arrange the effective factors that might influence the later generations and, by doing so, we could estimate the construction method at that time.
Through understanding the features of ancient East Asian pagodas, which was already categorized in this sections, we can have several results for the structural type and the construction of the stone pagoda of Mireuksa site.
First, in the pagoda of Mireuksa, the interior structure and the exterior structure were built independently, so the dual structural type seems to have been applied. That is, as a part of post-and-lintel construction, the interior center pole takes an effective way to transmit the vertical load to the ground, and the elevation is not connected directly to the pole as well as is maintained individually. The cornerstone and the structure of stylobate part were made in response to the vertical and horizontal forces post-and-lintel construction had, and, as for the elevation in the dual structural system, the member related with both the exterior and the interior parts are estimated to have reflected the structural feature mixing and protruding beams and trans web frames.
Meanwhile, the structural type of the pagoda in Mireuksa strongly reflects the influence of the post-and-lintel construction, which functions as a factor to make the interior space in the first level with the stone base and the stone poles in the center of the plane.
Second, it is supposed that the pagoda in Mireuksa overcame the limitation on the materials, adopted the post-and-lintel construction, and changed its form. Namely, by interpreting the masonry construction and expressing it in the frame and shape, the structural type at that time is considered to have been revealed in its surface. We can judge from this that the pagoda provides the important grounds to be used to estimate the masonry construction of the Baekje architecture, and conversely to understand the pagoda structure and building of the Baekje masonry construction that is not remained now.
In the masonry construction that is revealed in the pagoda in the Mireuksa, we are able to find that the horizontal member is emphasized, which mainly exists in the dual structural structures of pagoda. In other words, the lower roof stone belonging to the roof stone, which has been thought of as a member appertained to the roof part, seems to express the purline connecting the upper pole, and we can examine the process of its development by investigating the flat stone in the first floor as well as the fine stone. There can be found the influence of the North Dynasty's architecture in the structural features that the elevation of the pagoda in the Mireuksa has, such as the development of the horizontal brace, the place of the beam, and the composition of the flat adornments, but it is believed to express the common characteristics of 7th century East Asian architecture rather than to simply manifest the influence of the North Dynasty's architecture. That is because, during Sui Tang periods, the cultural influence of the North Dynasty lasted centering on Luoyang and Chang'an, a new changes of the architectural technology were made in that course, and those features could be found simultaneously in the elevation of the pagoda in Mireuksa.
Third, this attempt takes on a view to examine the relationships of phenomenon, and has the limitation that cannot provide the grounds for the process of development although claiming that the first pagoda was built in Mireuksa with stones. Simply, it presented its relationship with the stone chamber that took a form of the Baekje's tomb as a synthetical result considering the Baekje's stone archtectural technology at that time and recognizing the background and construction of Mireuksa. In addition, in the case of the pagoda of Mireuksa, it seems that the Buddhist bones were placed in the center stone so that four direction space could be made around the stone, which showed the consideration related with the tomb type at that time as well. Accordingly, we can assume that it was a method to effectively express the symbolic place, and that the pagoda built with stones was more easily accepted due to the same materials.
The pagoda in Mireuksa can be presented as a foundation to show the structure of a pagoda in those days, which was built through understanding the structure of the pagoda construction and reinterpreting such a comprehension to build its base and the interior according to the structure responding to weight empty and external force while the elevation is not a clue to express member as a simple wooden version. Also the structure of the first floor actively accepting a tomb type was a breakthrough that was made on the ground, which was almost at the same time with the instruction of the tomb of the Chinese pagoda.
As for the application of the dual structural type, in Korea, where the materials were different from China, it is estimated that the way the stylobate was constructed with building the axis and the other things continued and that it was not built to high stories as seen in the restoration study in China. However, it is possible that it served a role to make the scale of the pagoda bigger by building the high stylobate part, which is also revealed in the Jaesuk Temple. Meanwhile, since the pagoda of Mireuksa was made of stones, it could have the interior structure as high as the story and the height consisting the exterior, and therefore we can judge that it could realize the structural type by changing the material. This structural type was chosen to express the multi-story - nine stories in total - and such an expression seems to have been reflected for the purpose of make it have the same stories in spite of lowering the entire height than the pagoda in the center of the temple.
Finally, building the Stone Pagoda of Mireuksa was considered as a try to use the new material for the pagoda structure with masonry construction coexisting at that time, and Yongjeongri Temple and Jaesuck Temple, which are among the Baekje's pagoda site, and the wooden pagoda in Mireuksa were supposedly the pagodas containing the interior structure.
In addition, the Stone Pagoda of Mireuksa is assumed to have been constructed considering the wooden pagoda of Mireuksa in the central part. When estimating the situation before the excavation of the stone pagoda of Mireuksa and judging from its base, the interior structure of the pagoda in the center of the temple was built, and the triple flagstone - which remains in the stylobate until now - is likely to have been a wooden pole base in such an interior structure.
Also, in the later periods, we can find the influence of the pagoda in Mireuksa as the first model, and the continuity of the interior-exterior dual structural type of the pagoda can be found in the center of the stylobate in the later pagodas. In the case of the pagoda in Mireuksa, it was separated from the flat stone laid on the stylobate and sought structural stability by transmitting the vertical load directly to the ground through the keystone and the structure while most ones built after the pagoda in Mireuksa had smaller scales, tended to become refractories, let flat stone laid on the stylobate unify the lower parts of the body stone in the first floor, and took the shape of the flat member to structurally be the weak part. In the meantime, the interior structure in the stylobate of the Five-storied Stone Pagoda in Wanggungri seems to have accepted and reflected the structure of the Stone Pagoda of Mireuksa in that the pagoda in Wanggungri kept this supporting structure for such a vertical load.