Runaway and homeless youth : new research and clinical perspectives

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• 1 Runaway Youth at the Time of Their Disappearance = 1
• Prevalence = 2
• Socioeconomic Status Factors = 2
• Age = 3
• Gender = 3
• Racial and Ethnic Factors = 4
• Sexual Orientation = 4
• Residence (Region) = 4
• Did Runaway Youth Tell Their Families That They Were Running Away? = 5
• Leaving Home Without Identification or Cash = 5
• Duration That Runaway Youth Is Reporting Missing = 5
• Seasons When Young People Run Away from Home = 6
• Runaway Youth May Use Hair Dye to Alter Hair Color or Alter Their Appearance in Other Ways = 6
• Use of Nicknames/Alias Names = 6
• Use of Alias Birthdates = 7
• Runaway Youth in the Company of Peers = 7
• Runaway Youth in the Company of Adults = 7
• Runaway Youth in the Company of Both Juveniles and Adults = 8
• Runaway Youth in the Company of Relatives = 8
• Do Runaway Youth Stay in the Local Area? = 8
• Motor Vehicle Used to Run Away = 9
• Did the Runaway／Thrown-Away Youth Leave the State? = 9
• Travel Destinations in the USA = 9
• Travel to Another Country = 9
• Travel Plans Unknown = 10
• Emotional Status at the Time of Their Disappearance = 10
• Runaway Youth Suffer Distress and Painful Psychosocial Experiences = 10
• Suicidal Behaviors = 10
• Abuse = 11
• Neglect = 11
• Other Family Problems and Dysfunction = 12
• Substitute Care = 12
• History of Violence = 12
• Victims of Physical Assault = 12
• Delinquency／Criminal History at the Time Youth Run Away = 13
• Human Trafficking, Prostitution, and Survival Sex = 13
• Use of Alcohol and Other Illicit Drugs at the Time They Ran Away = 15
• Medical Condition and Mortality = 15
• Disability = 15
• Contacts with Law Enforcement = 16
• Contact with Social Services = 16
• Runaway／Thrown-Away Incident Outcomes = 16
• 2 Running Away from Substitute Care = 17
• Prevalence of Running Away from Substitute Care = 18
• Foster Care Young People in Runaway Shelters = 19
• Duration of Elopement Episodes = 19
• Why Youth Run Away from Substitute Care = 19
• Demographic Factors = 20
• Placement Disruptions or Instability = 20
• Victims of Abuse, Neglect, Abandonment, and Family Conflict／Dysfunction = 20
• First Time of Running Away from Substitute Care = 23
• History of Running Away = 23
• Use of Alcohol and Other Drugs = 23
• Having Mental Health Diagnoses = 24
• Offending History Increases Risk of Running Away from Residential and Foster Care = 24
• Type of Placement = 24
• Access to Education = 24
• Consequences of Running Away = 25
• Placement Outcomes and Interventions = 26
• 3 Food Insecurity and Related Problems Among Homeless and Runaway Youth = 27
• Adolescent Growth and Eating Patterns = 28
• Perceptions of Food = 28
• Food Insecurity and Illnesses = 30
• Impact of Alcohol and Other Drug Use and Abuse = 30
• Food Insecurity and Pregnancy = 31
• Demographic Characteristics = 31
• Types of Accommodation and Food Insecurity = 32
• History of Caretaker Abuse and/or Neglect = 32
• Social Network and Social Support = 33
• Main Sources of Income = 33
• Income from Criminal Activity = 34
• Number of Different Income Sources = 35
• Main Sources of Food = 35
• Food Intake = 37
• Nutrient Intakes = 38
• Weight Status = 38
• 4 Employment and Other Income Sources of Runaway and Homeless Youth = 39
• Prevalence of Street Youth Income Activities = 41
• Characteristics of Runaway and Homeless Teens Who Work = 41
• Education, Job Training, and Job Placement Resources for Runaway／Homeless Youth = 42
• Obstacles to Employment and Income-Related Activities = 42
• Other Obstacles in Obtaining Employment = 43
• Impact of Income-Generating Activities on Street-Involved Youth = 44
• Career and Employment Outcomes of Former Homeless and Runaway Youth = 45
• 5 School Issues Facing Runaway and Homeless Youth = 47
• Prevalence of Mental Disorders in Runaway and Homeless Youth = 48
• Substance Use and Conduct Problems = 49
• Failing Grades = 50
• Truancy = 51
• School Detention = 52
• School Suspensions = 52
• Expulsion = 53
• Missed School Days = 53
• Low School Achievement = 54
• Participation in Special or Remedial Education = 54
• School Alternatives = 54
• High School Completion and Attendance = 55
• 6 Substance Use Among Homeless and Runaway Adolescents = 57
• Prevalence of Substance Abuse = 58
• Possible Demographic Correlates = 60
• Familial Risk Factors = 60
• On-the-Street Risk Factors = 61
• Housing Instability and Type of Setting = 63
• Human Trafficking Victimization, Prostitution, and Substance Abuse = 63
• Substance Use and HIV／AIDS Risks = 64
• Substance-Abuse Effects on Unintended Pregnancies = 64
• Mental Disorders and Substance Use = 64
• Substance Abuse, Violence, and Other High-Risk Behaviors = 65
• Drug Use and Mortality Among Homeless and Runaway Youth = 66
• Substance Use Among Adults Who Were Former Runaways = 66
• 7 Delinquent／Criminal and Violent Behavior = 67
• Violence and Unintended Pregnancies = 70
• Impaired Family Functioning = 70
• Mental Disorders and Neurocognitive Problems = 71
• School Problems and Low Self-Esteem = 71
• Socioeconomic Status = 72
• Age and Peer Factors = 72
• Social and Behavioral Factors Associated with Homelessness and Time on the Streets = 73
• History of Running Away Episodes = 74
• Routine Activity and Lifestyle-Exposure Approach = 74
• Peer Interactions on the Streets : Conventional and Deviant Peers = 74
• Peers Provide Assistance in Subsistence Strategies = 75
• Peers Offer Social and Emotional Support = 76
• Low Self-Control = 76
• Long-Term Effects on Criminal Behavior as Adults = 76
• 8 Runaway and Homeless Sexual Minorities = 77
• Proportion of LGBT Youth in Street Youth Populations = 77
• Gay-Related Stress Among LGBT Children and Adolescents = 78
• Runaway and Homeless LGBT Youth and Their Families = 80
• Risk of Victimization and Coercion = 80
• Problems Facing Homeless and Runaway Youth While on the Streets = 82
• 9 Well-Being and Access to Health Care = 87
• Physical and Mental Health Problems = 88
• Malnutrition and Food Insecurity = 88
• STIs Including HIV／AIDS = 89
• Teenage Pregnancy = 90
• Other Physical Health Problems among Runaway and Homeless Youth = 90
• Psychosocial Problems Among Runaway and Homeless Youth = 91
• Conduct Disorder = 91
• Depression = 92
• Anxiety Disorders and PTSD = 92
• PTSD Risk Factors among Runaway and Homeless Young People = 92
• Suicidal Behaviors = 93
• Feelings of Hopelessness = 94
• Deliberate Self-Harm = 94
• Substance Abuse = 94
• Risk Factors for Substance Use and Abuse Among Homeless and Runaway Youth = 96
• Stress, Trauma, and Family Factors = 97
• Substance Abuse and Victimization = 97
• Deviant Peer Groups and Networks = 97
• Other Physical and Psychosocial Problems Associated with Human Trafficking Victimization = 98
• Future Substance-Abuse Problems = 98
• 10 Suicidal Behavior = 99
• Prevalence of Suicidal Behaviors in General Child and Adolescent Population = 99
• Demographics = 100
• Sexual Minority Youth = 100
• Family Dysfunction Including Physical and Sexual Abuse by Family Members = 100
• Physical and Sexual Abuse Outside the Family = 101
• History of Family Suicide／Loss and Suicidal Behavior = 101
• Mental Disorders and Poor Health = 101
• Adolescents with Biological Relatives Who Have Mental Disorders = 102
• Youth with Family Members Who Abuse Alcohol or Drugs = 102
• Personal Difficulty = 103
• Prevalence of Suicidal Behaviors Among Homeless and Runaway Youth = 103
• Suicidal Behavior Risk Factors Among Homeless and Runaway Youth = 104
• Child Abuse = 105
• Human Trafficking Victimization = 105
• Substance Abuse and Other Externalizing Behavior = 105
• Knowing a Friend Who Attempted Suicide = 105
• Internationalizing Behaviors = 106
• Suicidal Prevention Programs = 106
• Suicidal Behavior Among Adults Who Were Former Runaways = 106
• 11 Self-Mutilation Among Runaway and Homeless Youth = 107
• Prevalence of Self-Mutilation and Suicidal Behaviors = 108
• Stress Theory and Affect Regulation = 109
• Risk Factors for Self-Mutilation = 109
• Family Impairment = 110
• Major Family-of-Origin Stressors Including Sexual, Physical, and Emotional Abuse, Neglect and Abandonment by Family Members = 110
• Street-Based Victimization and Trauma = 111
• Human Trafficking Victimization = 111
• Deviant and Illegal Subsistence Methods = 111
• Overwhelming Feelings Including Anger, Hopelessness, Self-Punishment, PTSD, Depression, Anxiety, Substance Abuse, and Other Mental Health Problems = 112
• Risk Taking and Reckless Behaviors = 113
• Stigma and Feelings of Low Self-Worth, Low Self-Esteem, and Low Self-Confidence = 113
• Social Isolation and Lack of Social Support = 113
• Minority Sexual Orientation = 114
• Self-Mutilation and Risk of Suicide = 114
• Interventions = 115
• 12 Sexual Risks = 117
• Risk Amplification Model = 117
• Survival Sex, Prostitution, and Sex Trafficking = 118
• Gender and Survival Sex = 119
• Age and Survival Sex = 119
• Race/Ethnicity and Survival Sex = 119
• Days Away from Home and Survival Sex = 119
• Street Experiences = 120
• Desire for Love = 120
• Previous Victimization and Survival Sex = 120
• Gender Differences in Effects of Early Childhood Sexual Abuse = 120
• Delinquent／Criminal Activities = 121
• Substance Use and Abuse = 121
• Being High or Intoxicated and Not Using Protection During Sexual Intercourse = 122
• Injection Drug Use and Lack of Barrier Protection During Sex = 122
• Depression = 122
• Suicide Attempts = 123
• Prior Psychiatric Hospitalization = 123
• Inconsistent Contraceptive Use/Unprotected Sex = 123
• Sexually Transmitted Infections and HIV = 124
• Alcohol Use and Sexually Transmitted Infection History = 124
• Treatment for Sexually Transmitted Infections = 124
• Sexual Orientation = 125
• History of Earlier Sexual Intercourse = 125
• Recent History of Sexual Intercourse = 125
• Multiple Sexual Partners = 126
• Sexual Victimization = 126
• Other Social and Behavioral Factors = 127
• Sexually Transmitted Infections May Increase the Probability of Other Health Problems = 127
• Pregnancy = 127
• Possible Effects of Runaway Behavior on STIs in Adulthood = 128
• 13 Pregnancy = 129
• Correlates of Adolescent Pregnancy = 129
• Outcomes of Adolescent Pregnancy = 132
• Adverse Maternal, Fetal, and Neonatal Outcomes = 132
• Social Outcomes = 132
• Infant Care = 133
• Infant Outcomes = 133
• Child Outcomes = 133
• Prevalence of Pregnancy Among Runaway and Homeless Youth = 133
• Correlates of Pregnancy Among Runaway and Homeless Female Youth = 134
• Living on the Streets and in Shelters = 134
• Romantic Involvement = 135
• Violence and Abuse = 135
• Sex Trafficking = 136
• Feelings of Abandonment = 136
• Wanting a Sense of Belonging = 136
• Single-Parent Families = 136
• School Factors = 137
• Sexually Transmitted Infections = 137
• Runaway and Homeless Teens Experience Pregnancy = 137
• Interventions for Pregnant Runaways = 138
• Outcomes for Pregnant Runaways = 138
• 14 HIV-／AIDS-Risk Behaviors = 139
• Demographic Characteristics = 140
• Homelessness and Unstable Housing = 140
• Social Network Characteristics and Peer Group Affiliation = 141
• Early Family Abuse = 142
• Depression = 142
• Relationship Status = 143
• Sexual Decision Making = 143
• Drug and Alcohol Use = 143
• Violence and Abuse = 144
• Risky Sexual Behaviors and Survival Sex, Sex Trafficking, and Prostitution = 144
• Multiple Sex Partners = 145
• Sexual Victimization = 145
• High-Risk Partners = 146
• Male-to-Male Sex = 146
• Anal Sex = 146
• Sex with an Intravenous Drug User = 146
• HIV Testing = 147
• History of Sexually Transmitted Infections = 147
• Conduct Disorder = 147
• Sexual Orientation = 147
• Interventions to Reduce Sexually Transmitted Infections and HIV／AIDS Transmission = 148
• 15 Mortality = 149
• Mortality Rates = 149
• Causes of Death = 150
• Homicide = 150
• Suicide = 151
• Drug Overdose = 151
• Accidents and Injuries (Other Than Motor Vehicle) = 152
• Motor Vehicle Accidents = 152
• Diseases = 153
• The Impact of Social, Behavioral, Technological, Organizational, and Other Factors that May Affect the Forensic Classification of Death = 153
• Mortality Risk Factors = 155
• 16 Street Youth in Different Countries = 157
• Who Are Street Youth? = 158
• Living at Home and/or Living on the Streets = 158
• Age Characteristics = 158
• Gender = 159
• The Worldwide Prevalence of Street Youth = 159
• Risk Factors for Street Young People = 160
• Global Factors = 160
• Human Trafficking = 161
• Poverty and Low Socioeconomic Status = 162
• Family Disintegration = 162
• Relations with Parents and Other Family Members = 162
• Drug Use = 163
• Abuse, Violence, and Neglect = 163
• Peer Influence and Desire for Independence and Fun = 164
• School-Associated Problems = 164
• Breaking the Law = 164
• Internet-Related Factors = 165
• Media Portrayal of Street Life and Lifestyle Factors = 165
• Street Life Experiences = 166
• Income-Generating Activities Among Street Youth = 166
• Street-Based Work Exploitation = 167
• School Attendance and Educational Performance Among Street Youth = 167
• Drug and Alcohol Use Among Street Youth = 167
• Survival Sex = 168
• Delinquency and History of Arrests While on the Streets = 168
• Victimization Among Street Youth in Different Countries = 170
• Peer Influence, Gangs, and Lifestyle = 171
• HIV／STI Risks Among Street Youth in Various Countries = 171
• Self-Harm Behaviors Among Street Youth = 172
• Mental and Social Health Problems and Social Development Among Street Youth in Different Countries = 172
• Other Social Conditions on the Street in Different Countries = 173
• Nutritional Status and Physical Development of Street Youth = 173
• Governments' Use of Punitive Measures to Remove Street Youth = 173
• 17 Police Responses to Runaway and Homeless Youth = 175
• Runaway and Homeless Youth Arrest Data = 177
• Runaway and Homeless Youth Try to Evade Police = 179
• Runaway and Homeless Youth May Resist Arrest = 180
• Risk Factors Associated with Getting Arrested = 180
• Drug and Alcohol Offenses = 181
• Vagrancy Arrests = 182
• Vandalism and Property Damage = 182
• Other Juvenile Status Offenses = 182
• Arrests of Runaways' Friends = 182
• Community, Law Enforcement, and State／National Factors = 183
• Demeanor and Behavioral Characteristics = 183
• Mental Health Problems of Runaway Youth = 183
• Current Living Situation = 183
• Length of Time on the Street = 184
• Survival Strategies on the Streets = 184
• Obstacles that Law Enforcement Face in Responding to Runaway Children and Adolescents = 184
• Do Runaways Have an Increased Risk of Criminal Justice Involvement as Adults? = 185
• 18 Court Responses to Runaway Offenses and Other Juvenile Status Violations = 187
• How Are Status Offenses Handled? = 189
• Risk Factors for Committing Status Offenses = 191
• Disparities in the Juvenile Justice System = 192
• 19 Juvenile Detention = 195
• Societal Trends and the Juvenile Court System's History and Philosophy = 196
• Goals of Juvenile Detention = 198
• Secure Detention and Confinement = 199
• The Detention Decision = 199
• Crowding = 200
• Demographic and Behavioral Characteristics of Confined Juveniles = 201
• Conditions of Confinement in Juvenile Detention and Correction Facilities = 201
• Questions About the Effectiveness of Secure Detention and Confinement = 203
• Different Juvenile Settings = 203
• 20 Runaway and Homeless Youth Interventions = 209
• Primary and Secondary Intervention Approaches = 210
• Evaluation of Service Settings = 212
• Reducing Rates of Runaway／Homeless Behavior = 213
• Behavioral and Mental Health Problems = 213
• Relationship with Family Members = 214
• Substance Use and Abuse = 214
• Delinquency and Criminal Behavior Reduction = 214
• HIV／AIDS Prevention and Sexual Health Risk Reduction Strategies = 215
• Pregnancy Prevention = 215
• Improving School Outcomes = 216
• Enhancing Employment and Vocational Training Outcomes = 216
• Improving Vocational Training = 216
• Effects of Service Utilization = 216
• Case Management = 217
• Mental Health Treatment for Runaway and Homeless Youth = 217
• International Research = 217
• Methodological Concerns = 218
• 21 Runaway and Homeless Youth Needs : Legislation and Policy Options = 219
• Identifying Homeless and Runaway Youth = 219
• Prevalence of Homeless People = 220
• Identifying Youth Who Are at Early Risk for Running Away and Becoming Homeless = 221
• Family Reunification and Community-Based Emergency Shelter and Social Services = 221
• Notification of Parent, Guardian, or Custodian = 222
• Parental Responsibility for Damages Caused by Their Runaway Children = 222
• Foster Care = 222
• Transitional Living Needs and Permanent Supportive Housing with Social Services = 223
• Lack of Transportation = 223
• Educational Barriers = 223
• Employment Training, Employment Opportunities, and Job Referrals = 224
• Living Independently as an Emancipated Adult = 224
• Mental Health and Medical Services = 224
• Delinquency and Deviant Behavior Prevention Interventions = 225
• Survival Sex, Prostitution, Sex Trafficking, and Sexually Transmitted Infections, Including HIV／AIDS = 225
• Mental Health Policy Initiatives = 226
• Drug and Alcohol Treatment = 226
• Runaway and Homeless Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgendered (LGBT) Youth = 226
• Evaluation of Outcomes = 227
• Agency-Based Tracking of Runaway and Homeless Youth = 227
• Federal Policies = 227
• State Policies = 228
• Definition of Being Runaway／Homeless = 229
• Comprehensive and Transitional Living Programs = 229
• Mental Health Services = 229
• Research on Runaway and Homeless Youth = 230
• Performance-Based Programs Legislation and policies = 230
• Shelters = 230
• Foster Care = 230
• Notification = 231
• Placement Issues = 231
• School Issues = 231
• Parental Responsibility for Damages Caused by Their Runaway Children = 232
• Appendix A : Runaway Youth Project (RYP) Research Methods = 233
• References = 237
• Index = 265