Introduction to climate change management : transitioning to a low-carbon economy

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• 1 The Science Background = 1
• 1.1 Climate Change and Global Warming = 1
• 1.1.1 The Work of Climate Scientists = 1
• 1.1.2 Atmospheric Concentrations of CO₂ = 2
• 1.1.3 The World’s “Carbon Budget” and Radiative Forcing = 6
• 1.1.4 Quantifying Anthropogenic Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions = 10
• 1.1.5 Representative Concentration Pathways = 11
• 1.1.6 Global Warming Hotspots = 13
• 1.2 How Climate Change Affects Weather Conditions = 14
• 1.3 The Interdisciplinary Nature of Climate and Earth Science = 15
• 1.4 Melting Permafrost in the Arctic = 17
• 1.5 Desertification of the Sahel = 18
• References = 19
• 2 Policy Frameworks = 21
• 2.1 International Efforts to Combat Climate Change = 21
• 2.1.1 The UNFCCC = 23
• 2.1.2 The Kyoto Protocol = 23
• 2.1.3 The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) = 24
• 2.2 The Paris Agreement = 26
• 2.3 The European Union’s Emissions Trading System = 27
• 2.4 Cap-and-Trade in the USA = 30
• 2.4.1 The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative = 30
• 2.4.2 California’s Climate Action = 31
• 2.4.3 California Cap-and-Trade Program = 33
• 2.5 California Low-Carbon Fuel Standard = 33
• 2.6 Regulation of GHG Emissions in Canada = 35
• 2.6.1 Ontario’s Greenhouse Gas Reduction Plan = 36
• 2.7 Alberta’s Regulation of GHG Emissions = 36
• 2.7.1 British Columbia’s Climate Change Strategy = 37
• 2.7.2 China = 38
• 2.8 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals = 38
• 2.9 International Aviation and Shipping = 39
• 2.9.1 The Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme
• for International Aviation (CORSIA) = 39
• 2.10 Maritime = 40
• 2.11 The Limitations of Carbon Trading as a Policy Instrument = 41
• 2.12 Policy Alternatives to Cap-and-Trade = 42
• 2.12.1 Carbon Taxes = 42
• 2.12.2 Regulation = 43
• 2.13 The Importance of the Price Signal = 45
• References = 46
• 3 Counting Carbon = 51
• 3.1 The Context for Counting Carbon = 51
• 3.2 Selecting Reporting Criteria = 52
• 3.2.1 The GHG Protocol = 52
• 3.2.2 ISO 14064-1 = 53
• 3.2.3 Other Criteria = 53
• 3.3 Organizational Boundaries of the Inventory = 53
• 3.4 Quantification of GHG Emissions and Removals; Emissions
• from Sinks; and Fluxes in Reservoirs = 57
• 3.4.1 Fugitive Emissions = 58
• 3.4.2 GHG Removals = 59
• 3.4.3 Data Sources for GHG Quantification = 59
• 3.4.4 Indirect Emissions from Imported Energy = 60
• 3.4.5 Indirect Emissions Other Than Imported Energy = 61
• 3.5 Quantification at the Product Level = 62
• 3.5.1 Carbon Footprint of Products Based on Life Cycle Assessment = 62
• 3.6 The Puraglobe Example = 65
• 3.7 Who Should Participate in Counting Carbon? = 67
• 3.8 Environmental Management System = 68
• 3.8.1 Greenhouse Gas Reporting According to ISO 14064 Part 1 = 69
• References = 72
• 4 Reducing Emissions = 75
• 4.1 Carbon Markets and GHG Mitigation = 75
• 4.1.1 The Concept of Additionality = 76
• 4.1.2 Obtaining Recognition = 79
• 4.1.3 Monitoring of GHG Sources, Sinks and Reservoirs = 79
• 4.1.4 Quantification of Emission Reductions
• and Removal Enhancements = 80
• 4.1.5 Validation and Verification = 81
• 4.1.6 Issuance of Carbon Credits = 83
• 4.2 Project Development : An Overview = 84
• 4.3 Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases = 84
• 4.4 Emission Reductions and Removal Enhancements
• at the Project Level = 88
• 4.4.1 Multiple Sectors of the CDM = 88
• 4.4.2 Energy Industries (Renewable/Non-renewable Sources) = 90
• 4.4.3 Energy Efficiency = 91
• 4.4.4 Fuel/Feedstock Switching = 91
• 4.4.5 Small-Scale Energy Distribution = 91
• 4.4.6 Manufacturing Industries = 92
• 4.4.7 Metal Production = 92
• 4.4.8 Fugitive Emissions from Fuels and Other Substances = 93
• 4.4.9 Buildings and Construction = 93
• 4.4.10 Transport = 96
• 4.4.11 Waste Handling and Disposal = 96
• 4.4.12 Agriculture = 97
• 4.5 Critique of a Durban (SA) MSW CDM Project = 99
• 4.6 Issues Associated with the CDM = 100
• 4.7 Voluntary Carbon Offset Programs = 101
• References = 102
• 5 Measuring, Reporting, and Verification = 107
• 5.1 Measurement and Monitoring = 107
• 5.1.1 Activity Data and Emission Factors = 108
• 5.1.2 Monitoring Methods and Equipment = 109
• 5.1.3 The IPCC Guidelines for National Reporting = 110
• 5.1.4 Monitoring at the Organizational Level = 110
• 5.2 Validation and Verification = 112
• 5.2.1 Oversight of Validation and Verification Bodies = 113
• 5.2.2 Types of Engagements = 114
• 5.2.3 Verification Planning = 116
• 5.2.4 Criteria and Materiality = 117
• 5.2.5 Strategic Analysis and Risk Assessment = 118
• 5.2.6 Risk Assessment = 119
• 5.2.7 Site Visits = 120
• 5.2.8 Transitioning from Planning to Execution = 122
• 5.2.9 Execution and Completion of Verification Activities = 125
• 5.2.10 Drafting an Opinion = 125
• 5.2.11 Limited Assurance = 126
• 5.3 Validation = 128
• 5.3.1 Independent Review = 131
• 5.3.2 Issuance of Opinion = 132
• 5.3.3 Facts Discovered After the Verification/Validation = 133
• 5.4 Agreed-Upon Procedures = 133
• 5.4.1 Certain Indirect Emissions/Removals = 134
• 5.4.2 Compliance to Specifications = 135
• 5.4.3 GHG Information and Data Management and Controls = 135
• References = 137
• 6 Financing the Transition = 139
• 6.1 Means for Financing the Transition = 139
• 6.1.1 Cryptocurrencies or Cashless System = 141
• 6.2 Role of Finance in Transitioning to a Low-Carbon Economy = 143
• 6.2.1 What is the Value of a Traded Asset? = 144
• 6.3 How Does Green Finance Work? = 147
• 6.4 Who are the Finance Sector Actors? = 151
• 6.4.1 International Financial Institutions = 151
• 6.4.2 National Banking System = 152
• 6.4.3 Companies’ Financial Services = 153
• 6.4.4 Sovereign Wealth Funds (SWF) = 154
• 6.4.5 Pension Funds = 154
• 6.5 A Quick Survey of the Finance Sector = 155
• 6.6 Multilateral Banking and Finance = 157
• 6.7 Development Aid = 157
• 6.8 The Birth of Green Finance = 158
• 6.9 International Standards for Green Finance = 159
• 6.9.1 The Process for Green Bonds = 161
• 6.9.2 The Process for Green Loans = 163
• 6.10 How Do Green Loans Work? = 163
• 6.11 ISO’s Taxonomy of Eligible Investment Categories = 164
• 6.11.1 Regulatory and Voluntary Taxonomies = 164
• References = 165
• 7 Adaptation = 169
• 7.1 The International Context for Adaptation = 169
• 7.2 Disaster Risks are Related to Climate Change = 170
• 7.3 Systems Thinking = 174
• 7.4 Thresholds Analysis = 176
• 7.5 Construction Along Coastal Areas and Rivers = 177
• 7.6 Climate Change Scenarios and Pathways = 180
• 7.7 Impact Chains = 180
• 7.8 Creating Redundant Infrastructure = 182
• 7.9 Restoring Environmental Amenities in Urban Centers = 183
• 7.10 Water Management in Venice = 185
• 7.11 Forest Preservation = 186
• 7.12 Adaptive Capacity = 186
• References = 188
• 8 The Path to Net Zero = 191
• 8.1 The Concept of Net Zero = 191
• 8.2 Energy = 193
• 8.2.1 Renewable Sources of Electricity = 194
• 8.2.2 Hydroelectric Sources of Electricity = 194
• 8.2.3 Green Hydrogen = 195
• 8.2.4 Geothermal Sources of Electricity = 196
• 8.2.5 Energy Efficiency = 197
• 8.2.6 Transitioning Away from Fossil Fuels = 197
• 8.2.7 Nuclear Power = 198
• 8.2.8 Natural Gas-Fired Generating Stations = 200
• 8.2.9 Renewable Energy as a Fossil Fuel Replacement = 200
• 8.3 Manufacturing = 201
• 8.4 Transport = 201
• 8.4.1 Efficient, Low-, and Zero-Direct Emissions Fleets = 203
• 8.5 Mining/Mineral Production = 204
• 8.5.1 Production of Steel and Iron = 204
• 8.5.2 Production of Aluminum = 205
• 8.6 Chemical Industry = 205
• 8.7 Construction = 206
• 8.8 Fugitive Emissions = 209
• 8.9 Waste Handling and Disposal = 209
• 8.9.1 Carbon Capture and Storage = 210
• 8.10 Afforestation and Reforestation = 210
• 8.10.1 Voluntary Initiatives = 210
• 8.10.2 The Role for Standards = 212
• 8.11 Making Economies Circular = 214
• 8.12 The Role for Finance on Pathways to a Low-Carbon Future = 215
• 8.13 Stranded Assets = 218
• 8.14 Inequality, Culture, and Consumerism = 218
• References = 220
• 9 Conclusions = 225
• 9.1 Assessing Climate Policy = 225
• 9.2 The Carbon Markets = 228
• 9.3 Europe’s Experience with the Emissions Trading System = 230
• 9.3.1 Interim Emission Reduction Targets in the EU = 230
• 9.3.2 The European Green Deal = 230
• 9.4 Shifting Views of Economists on Climate Change = 232
• 9.5 Transition Risks and Financial Risks = 233
• 9.5.1 Government Policies = 234
• 9.5.2 Industry Action = 234
• 9.5.3 Nongovernmental Organizations = 235
• 9.6 Lessons from the Pandemic of 2020 = 235
• 9.6.1 Public Health Care = 237
• 9.6.2 Behavioral and Life Style Changes = 237
• 9.6.3 Economic Impacts = 238
• 9.7 Last Words = 240
• References = 241
• Chapter 1 : Questions for Readers = 243
• Index = 257