Science teaching and the development of thinking

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• PREFACE = xvii
• CHAPTER 1 TEACHING AND THE NATURE OF SCIENCE = 1
• Educational Purpose = 1
• The Nature of Scientific Thinking: A Look at the Work of an Ethologist = 5
• Creating Hypotheses = 6
• Testing Hypotheses = 8
• Why Hypotheses Are Neither Proven nor Disproven = 11
• The Origin and Nature of Theories: A Look at the Work of Charles Darwin = 13
• The Use of Analogy = 16
• The Nature of Theories = 17
• How Are Theories Tested? The Case of Spontaneous Generation = 23
• Science and Religion = 27
• The Role of Observation in Science: The "Construction" of Oxygen = 28
• CHAPTE 2 PATTERNS OF THINKING BY SCIENTISTS AND BY ADOLESCENTS = 42
• Homing Behavior in Silver Salmon = 43
• Raising a Causal Question = 43
• Creating Hypotheses and Combinatorial Thinking = 44
• Generating Predictions = 45
• Identifying and Controlling Variables = 45
• Drawing Conclusions = 46
• Probabilistic and Correlational Thinking = 46
• Creative and Critical Thinking Skills = 49
• The Nature of Adolescent Thinking = 53
• The Mealworm Puzzle = 53
• The Volume Puzzle = 55
• The Frog Puzzle = 58
• Empirical-Inductive and Hypothetical-Deductive Thinking Patterns = 60
• Empirical-Inductive Thinking Patterns = 60
• Hypothetical-Deductive Thinking Patterns = 61
• Analysis of Student Responses = 62
• Summary = 65
• CHAPTER 3 SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE; ITS CONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT = 68
• The Nature of Declarative Knowledge = 69
• Types of Concepts = 70
• Types of Conceptual Systems = 73
• Mental Structures and the Process of Self-Regulation = 74
• The Pattern of Knowledge Construction = 75
• The Role of Mental Structures = 76
• Additional Examples of Self-Regulation = 78
• Disrupting Children's Spontaneous Attempts at Self-Regulation = 82
• Three Basic Mental Abilities and Self-Regulation = 83
• How Do Thinking Patterns Function in Adult Thinking? = 83
• Contributing Factors in Self-Regulation = 85
• How Are Descriptive Concepts Constructed? = 88
• The Role of Chunking in Higher-Order Concept Construction = 91
• How Are Theoretical Concepts Constructed? = 91
• Practice in Classifying Science Concepts = 96
• CHAPTER 4 STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE = 100
• Piaget's Theory = 101
• The Four Card Task and Hypothetical-Deductive Thought = 103
• Algebra and Hypothetical-Deductive Thought = 105
• A New View of Stage Theory = 106
• Stage 1 (Birth to 18 Months) = 107
• Stage 2 (18 Months to 7 Years) = 107
• Stage 3 (7 Years to Early Adolescence) = 110
• Stage 4 (Early Adolescence and Older) = 111
• The Relationship Between Procedural and Declarative Knowledge: A Closer Look = 112
• A Return to the Mellinarks = 117
• How Does Hypothetical-Deductive Thought Develop? = 121
• Developing the Procedure of Controlled Experimentation = 124
• Session 1 = 125
• Session 2 = 127
• Session 3 = 127
• Session 4 = 128
• CHAPTER 5 THE LEARNING CYCLE = 132
• Essential Elements of Science Instruction = 133
• The Learning Cycle = 134
• Three Types of Learning Cycles = 139
• Descriptive Learning Cycles = 142
• Empirical-Abductive Learning Cycles = 142
• Hypothetical-Deductive Learning Cycles = 143
• Learning Cycles as Different Phases of Doing Science = 147
• A Note on Creativity = 149
• A Note on Intelligence and Achievement = 150
• Historical Perspective: Origins of the Learning Cycle = 155
• The Origins of Inquiry-Oriented Instruction = 155
• Origins in the SCIS Program = 158
• Origins in Biology Education = 160
• Changes in Names: The Phases of the Learning Cycle = 161
• The Learning Cycle in the BSCS Program = 162
• The Learning Cycle in Driver's Conceptual Change Model = 162
• Key Postulates = 162
• Selecting Appropriate Explorations = 169
• General Science = 169
• Biology = 171
• Chemistry = 173
• Physics = 175
• CHAPTER 6 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE SCIENCE INSTRUCTION = 177
• Lesson Characteristics = 178
• Characteristics of Student Behavior = 180
• Characteristics of Teacher Behavior = 181
• Characteristics of Effective Questioning = 182
• Example Lessons = 184
• Keeping Inquiry Going and "Covering" Content = 200
• Helping Students Create Hypotheses = 201
• Correcting "Wrong" Conclusions = 202
• Classroom Control, Motivation, and Seating Arrangements = 203
• Covering Content = 204
• Scheduling Learning Cycles = 204
• CHAPTER 7 WHY DON'T MORE TEACHERS USE INQUIRY-ORIENTED METHODS? = 209
• Resistance to Inquiry = 211
• Time and Energy = 211
• Too Slow = 213
• Reading Too Difficult = 214
• Risk Too High = 218
• Tracking = 219
• Student Immaturity = 220
• Teaching Habits = 221
• Sequential Text = 221
• Discomfort for Teachers and Students = 222
• Too Expensive = 223
• Conclusion = 224
• CHAPTER 8 PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION = 226
• Curriculum Principles: Concept Organization and Presentation = 227
• The Undifferentiated Whole = 228
• Examples of Teaching Conceptual Systems = 233
• The Ecosystem = 233
• Evolution and Natural Selection = 238
• Curricular Principles for the Development of Thinking Skills = 247
• Self-Regulation = 247
• Independent Investigations = 248
• Historical Model = 249
• Comparing Conceptual Systems = 249
• Textbook Use and Selection = 250
• Using Field Trips to Provoke Self-Regulation = 254
• An Example of Student Field Work = 256
• Comments and Questions About Student Work = 260
• CHAPTE R 9 STUDENT ASSESSMENT = 261
• Classifying Test Items = 262
• Biology = 262
• Geology = 264
• Chemistry = 266
• Physics = 268
• Empirical-Inductive and Hypothetical-Deductive Test Items = 270
• Using Test Items to Encourage Self-Regulation = 272
• Using Homework Problems to Encourage Self-Regulation = 274
• What Is Wrong with Typical Homework Problems? = 275
• How to Encourage Self-Regulation = 276
• Examples of Physical Science Homework Problems = 278
• Examples of Biological Science Homework Problems = 283
• Written Work = 287
• Lab Report Guidelines = 288
• The One-Page Lab Report = 289
• Science Fair Projects = 290
• Portfolio Assessment = 295
• CHAPTER 10 DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT = 300
• Conceptions and Misconceptions = 301
• Motivation and Assessment = 303
• Cooperative Learning = 303
• Sequencing and Selecting Content = 304
• The Role of Analogy = 306
• Retention and Transfer of Thinking Skills = 307
• Teaching Content Versus Process = 308
• Textbooks = 309
• New Technologies = 310
• Teacher Education and Professional Growth = 310
• Other Currently Popular Methods = 312
• Project 2061 = 313
• Integrating Social and Technological Issues = 314
• Testing = 316
• Theoretical Issues and a Problem with "Social" Construetivism = 317
• Conclusion = 319
• CHAPTER 11 NEUROLOGICAL MODELS OF SELF-REGULATION AND INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS = 323
• Basic Neurological Principles = 324
• General Brain Anatomy = 324
• Neuronal Signals = 326
• General Principles of Network Modeling = 327
• Equations of Variable Interactions = 328
• Learning in a Simple Circuit: Classical Conditioning = 330
• Learning in Humans: A More Complex Network = 331
• The Basic Pattern of Knowledge Construction = 331
• The Neural Network = 333
• The Rebound from Hunger to Satisfaction = 334
• Stopping Feeding Behavior Resulting from Frustration = 334
• Match and Mismatch of Input with Expectations: Adaptive Resonance = 335
• Extension of Network Characteristics to Higher Levels of Learning = 338
• Initiating and Terminating Problem-Solving Behavior = 340
• Terminating the Additive Strategy Because of Contradiction = 341
• Orienting Arousal and the Search for a New Strategy = 342
• Feedback and Internal Monitoring of Problem Solving = 343
• Instructional Implications = 344
• Self-Regulation, Constructivism, and the Learning Paradox = 346
• Emergent Properties in the Natural Sciences = 347
• Emergent Properties in Cognition = 348
• A Return to Classical Conditioning = 349
• CHAPTER 12 THE ROLE OF LOGICAL AND ANALOGICAL THINKING IN KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION = 351
• Role of Logic = 352
• Two Common Forms of Logic = 353
• The Multiple-Hypothesis Theory of Hypothetical-Deductive Thought: Key Elements = 361
• Testing the Alternatives = 362
• Conclusions and Recommendations = 365
• A Neurological Explanation of Memory and Analogical Thinking = 367
• Adaptive Resonance = 369
• Outstars and Instars: Fundamental Units = 370
• The Neural Basis for Analogy = 374
• An Emergent, Self-Organizing Control System = 376
• A Return to the Japanese Classroom = 380
• Summary = 381
• Integrating Philosophy, Neural Modeling, Scientific Insight, and Instruction = 382
• APPENDIX A THE CENTRAL PURPOSE OF AMERICAN EDUCATION / Educational Policies Commission = 387
• APPENDIX B THE METHOD OF MULTIPLE WORKING HYPOTHESES / T. C. Chamberlain = 398
• APPENDIX C WHAT IS SCIENCE? / R. P. Feynmen = 408
• APPENDIX D RESEARCH ON THE LEARNING CYCLE / A. E. Lawson ; M. R. Abraham ; J. W. Renner = 418
• APPENDIX E TEACHING AND THE EXPANDING KNOWLEDGE / A. Szent-Gyorgyi = 432
• APPENDIX F CLASSROOM TEST OF SCIENTIFIC REASONING = 436
• APPENDIX G LEARNING CYCLES = 446
• Learning Cycle 1: Is Water a "Pure" Substance? = 447
• Learning Cycle 2: What Happens When Food Coloring and Detergent Are Put in Milk? = 460
• Learning Cycle 3: How Were Alien Monoliths Sorted? = 471
• Learning Cycle 4: What Is Energy? = 480
• Learning Cycle 5: What Causes Molecules to Move? = 492
• Learning Cycle 6: How Does Cell Structure Relate to Function? = 503
• Learning Cycle 7: How Do Multicellular Organisms Grow? = 520
• Learning Cycle 8: What Happens to Molecules During Chemical Breakdown? = 531
• Learning Cycle 9: What Is the Structure and Function of Flowers? = 539
• Learning Cycle 10: Why Do Liquids Evaporate at Different Rates? = 544
• Learning Cycle 11: What Changes Have Occurred in Organisms Through Time? = 556
• REFERENCES = 573
• INDEX = 589