Accelerator driven subcritical reactors

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• 1 Introduction = 1
• 2 The energy issue = 4
• 2.1 World energy perspectives = 4
• 2.1.1 Energy consumptions = 4
• 2.1.2 Fossil reserves = 4
• 2.1.3 Greenhouse effect = 6
• 2.2 Renewable energies = 17
• 2.2.1 Solar energy = 17
• 2.2.2 Biomass = 18
• 2.2.3 Wind energy = 19
• 2.2.4 Hydroelectricity = 19
• 2.3 Nuclear energy = 20
• 2.3.1 Standard reactors = 20
• 2.3.2 Breeder reactors = 23
• 2.3.3 Nuclear waste disposal options = 24
• 2.3.4 Deployment of a breeder park = 31
• 2.4 Costs = 35
• 2.5 The possible role of accelerator driven subcritical reactors = 36
• 2.5.1 Safety advantages of subcriticality = 37
• 2.5.2 Use of additional neutrons = 38
• 3 Elementary reactor theory = 39
• 3.1 Interaction of neutrons with nuclei = 39
• 3.1.1 Elementary processes = 39
• 3.1.2 Properties of heavy nuclei = 40
• 3.1.3 Neutron density, flux and reaction rates = 42
• 3.2 Neutron propagation = 45
• 3.2.1 Boltzmann equation = 46
• 3.2.2 Integral form of the Boltzmann equation = 47
• 3.2.3 Fick's law = 47
• 3.2.4 Diffusion equation = 49
• 3.2.5 Slowing down of neutrons = 53
• 3.3 Neutron multiplying assemblies = 60
• 3.4 Limiting values = 62
• 3.4.1 Critical masses = 63
• 3.4.2 Maximum flux = 66
• 3.5 Reactor control = 68
• 3.5.1 Delayed neutrons = 68
• 3.5.2 Temperature dependence of the reactivity = 73
• 3.5.3 Critical trip = 76
• 3.5.4 Residual heat extraction = 78
• 3.6 Fuel evolution = 81
• 3.6.1 The Bateman equations = 82
• 3.6.2 The long-term fuel evolutions = 82
• 3.7 Basics of waste transmutation = 87
• 3.7.1 Radiotoxicities = 87
• 3.7.2 Neutron balance for transmutation and incineration = 88
• 4 ADSR principles = 93
• 4.1 Properties of the multiplying medium = 93
• 4.1.1 Energy gain = 94
• 4.1.2 Neutron balance = 94
• 4.1.3 Neutron importance = 97
• 5 Practical simulation methods = 99
• 5.1 Neutron reaction data files = 99
• 5.2 Deterministic methods = 103
• 5.3 Monte Carlo codes = 104
• 5.3.1 Deterministic versus Monte Carlo simulation codes = 104
• 5.3.2 MCNP, a well validated Monte Carlo code = 105
• 5.4 Physics in MCNP = 105
• 5.4.1 Precision and variance reduction = 110
• 5.5 MCNP in practice = 111
• 5.5.1 Introduction = 111
• 5.5.2 Units = 111
• 5.5.3 Input file structure = 111
• 5.6 Examples = 122
• 5.6.1 Reactivity calculation = 122
• 5.6.2 Homogeneous versus heterogeneous cores = 123
• 5.6.3 Subcritical core = 126
• 5.6.4 Precision = 132
• 5.7 Fuel evolution = 133
• 5.7.1 Evolution constraint = 134
• 5.7.2 Spatial flux = 134
• 5.7.3 Special cross-section data = 134
• 5.7.4 Time step between two MCNPs = 135
• 6 The neutron source = 138
• 6.1 Interaction of protons with matter = 138
• 6.1.1 Electronic energy losses = 138
• 6.1.2 Nuclear stopping = 139
• 6.1.3 The nuclear cascade = 140
• 6.1.4 Experimental tests of the INC models = 142
• 6.1.5 The neutron source = 148
• 6.1.6 State of the art of the simulation codes = 154
• 6.2 Alternative primary neutron production = 155
• 6.2.1 Deuteron induced neutron production = 155
• 6.2.2 Muon catalysed fusion = 158
• 6.2.3 Electron induced neutron production = 159
• 6.3 Experimental determination of the energy gain = 160
• 6.4 Two-stage neutron multipliers = 161
• 6.5 High-intensity accelerators = 164
• 6.5.1 State of the art of high-intensity accelerators = 165
• 6.5.2 Requirements for ADSR accelerators = 166
• 6.5.3 Perspectives for high-intensity accelerators for ADSRs = 168
• 6.5.4 Examples of high-intensity accelerator concepts = 170
• 7 ADSR kinetics = 171
• 8 Reactivity evolutions = 177
• 8.1 Long-term evolutions = 177
• 8.2 Short-term reactivity excursions = 177
• 8.2.1 Protactinium effects = 179
• 8.2.2 Xenon effect = 181
• 8.2.3 Temperature effect = 183
• 8.2.4 Impact of reactivity excursions = 184
• 9 Fuel reprocessing techniques = 185
• 9.1 Basics of reprocessing = 185
• 9.2 Wet processes = 188
• 9.2.1 The purex process = 188
• 9.3 Dry processes = 199
• 9.3.1 Vaporization = 200
• 9.3.2 Gas purge = 201
• 9.3.3 Liquid-liquid extraction = 201
• 9.3.4 Selective precipitation = 204
• 9.3.5 Electrolysis = 204
• 10 Generic properties of ADSRs = 209
• 10.1 The homogeneous spherical reactor = 209
• 10.1.1 General solution of the diffusion equation = 210
• 10.1.2 The three-zone reactor = 210
• 10.1.3 Model calculations = 211
• 10.2 Parametric study of heterogeneous systems = 213
• 11 R$$\hat o$$le of hybrid reactors in fuel cycles = 215
• 11.1 The thorium-uranium cycle = 215
• 11.1.1 Radiotoxicity = 215
• 11.1.2 Breeding rates = 217
• 11.1.3 Doubling time = 219
• 11.1.4 Transition towards a $$\{}^{232}$$Th-based fuel from the PWR spent fuel, using a fast spectrum and solid fuel = 222
• 11.1.5 Thorium cycle with thermal spectrum = 225
• 11.2 Incineration = 229
• 11.2.1 Plutonium incineration = 229
• 11.2.2 Minor actinide incineration = 231
• 11.2.3 Initial reactivity of MA fuels = 232
• 11.2.4 Fuel evolution = 234
• 11.2.5 Solid versus liquid fuels = 238
• 11.2.6 The paradox of minor actinide fuels = 239
• 12 Ground laying proposals = 242
• 12.1 Solid fuel reactors = 242
• 12.1.1 Lead cooled ADSR : the Rubbia proposal = 242
• 12.2 Molten salt reactors = 246
• 12.2.1 The Bowman proposal = 246
• 12.2.2 The TIER concept = 247
• 12.3 Cost estimates = 249
• 13 Scenarios for the development of ADSRs = 252
• 13.1 Experiments = 253
• 13.1.1 The FEAT experiment = 253
• 13.1.2 The MUSE experiment = 253
• 13.2 Demonstrators = 253
• 13.2.1 Japan = 255
• 13.2.2 United States = 255
• 13.2.3 Europe = 256
• Appendix Ⅰ Deep underground disposal of nuclear waste = 263
• Ⅰ.1 Model of an underground disposal site = 263
• Ⅰ.1.2 Radioelement diffusion in geological layers = 264
• Ⅰ.1.3 Physical model of diffusion in the clay layer = 265
• Ⅰ.1.4 Simplified solution of the diffusion problem through the clay layer = 266
• Ⅰ.1.5 Solubility as a limiting factor of the flow of radioactive nuclei = 267
• Ⅰ.2 Determining the dose to the population = 267
• Ⅰ.2.1 Some dose determination examples = 268
• Ⅰ.2.2 Full computation example of the dose at the outlet = 269
• Ⅰ.3 Accidental intrusion = 271
• Ⅰ.3.1 Drilled samples = 272
• Ⅰ.3.2 Using the well to draw drinking water = 272
• Ⅰ.4 Heat production and sizing of the storage site = 274
• Ⅰ.4.1 Schematic determination of the temperature distribution = 274
• Ⅰ.4.2 Examples = 275
• Ⅰ.5 Geological hazard = 286
• Ⅰ.6 An underground laboratory. What for? = 276
• Ⅰ.7 Conclusion = 277
• Appendix Ⅱ The Chernobyl accident and the RMBK reactors = 279
• Ⅱ.1 The RBMK-1000 reactor = 279
• Ⅱ.2 Events leading to the accident = 281
• Ⅱ.3 The accident = 283
• Appendix Ⅲ Basics of accelerator physics = 284
• Ⅲ.1 Linear accelerators = 285
• Ⅲ.1.1 The Wider$$\ddot o$$e linear accelerator = 285
• Ⅲ.1.2 The Alvarez or drift tube linac(DTL) = 287
• Ⅲ.1.3 Phase stability = 293
• Ⅲ.1.4 Beam focusing = 294
• Ⅲ1.5 The radio frequency quadrupole(RFQ) = 300
• Ⅲ.2 Cyclotrons = 300
• Ⅲ.3 Superconductive solutions = 301
• Ⅲ.4 Space charge limitations = 302
• Bibliography = 305
• Index = 313