High-performance concrete

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• Foreword by Adam Neville, CBE, FEng = xx
• Foreword by Yves Malier = xxii
• Preface = xxv
• Acknowledgements = xxx
• 1 Terminology : some personal choices = 1
• 1.1 About the title of this book = 1
• 1.2 Water ／ cement, water ／ cementitious materials or water ／ binder ratio = 2
• 1.3 Normal strength concrete ／ ordinary concrete ／ usual concrete = 3
• 1.4 High-strength or high-performance concrete = 4
• References
• 2 Introduction = 7
• Reference = 21
• 3 A historical perspective = 22
• 3.1 Precursors and pioneers = 22
• 3.2 From water reducers to superplasticizers = 26
• 3.3 The arrival of silica fume = 28
• 3.4 Present status = 29
• References = 33
• 4 The high-performance concrete rationale = 35
• 4.1 Introduction = 35
• 4.2 For the owner = 36
• 4.3 For the designer = 37
• 4.4 For the contractor = 38
• 4.5 For the concrete producer = 38
• 4.6 For the environment = 40
• 4.7 Case studies = 40
• 4.7.1 Water Tower Place = 40
• 4.7.2 Gullfaks offshore platform = 42
• 4.7.3 Sylans and Glaci$$\bprime e$$res viaducts = 46
• 4.7.4 Scotia Plaza = 50
• 4.7.5 $$\hat I$$le de R$$e'$$ bridge = 53
• 4.7.6 Two Union Square = 56
• 4.7.7 Joigny bridge = 59
• 4.7.8 Mont$$e'$$e St-R$$e'$$mi bridge = 62
• 4.7.9 'Pont de Normandie' bridge = 66
• 4.7.10 Hibernia offshore platform = 70
• 4.7.11 Confederation bridge = 76
• References = 80
• 5 High-performance concrete principles = 84
• 5.1 Introduction = 84
• 5.2 Concrete failure under compressive load = 85
• 5.3 Improving the strength of hydrated cement paste = 88
• 5.3.1 Porosity = 89
• 5.3.2 Decreasing the grain size of hydration products = 93
• 5.3.3 Reducing inhomogeneities = 93
• 5.4 Improving the strength of the transition zone = 93
• 5.5 The search for strong aggregates = 95
• 5.6 Rheology of low water ／ binder ratio mixtures = 96
• 5.6.1 Optimization of grain size distribution of aggregates = 96
• 5.6.2 Optimization of grain size distribution of cementitious particles = 97
• 5.6.3 The use of supplementary cementitious materials = 97
• 5.7 The water ／ binder ratio law = 97
• 5.8 Concluding remarks = 99
• References = 99
• 6 Review of the relevant properties of some ingredients of high-performance concrete = 101
• 6.1 Introduction = 101
• 6.2 Portland cement = 101
• 6.2.1 Composition = 101
• 6.2.2 Clinker manufacture = 103
• 6.2.3 Clinker microstructure = 106
• 6.2.4 Portland cement manufacture = 111
• 6.2.5 Portland cement acceptance tests = 113
• 6.2.6 Portland cement hydration = 115
• (a) Step 1 Mixing period = 116
• (b) Step 2 The dormant period = 117
• (c) Step 3 Initial setting = 118
• (d) Step 4 Hardening = 119
• (e) Step 5 Slowdown = 120
• 6.2.7 Concluding remarks on Portland cement hydration from a high-performance concrete point of view = 120
• 6.3 Portland cement and water = 121
• 6.3.1 From water reducers to superplasticizers = 122
• 6.3.2 Types of superplasticizer = 126
• 6.3.3 Manufacture of superplasticizers = 126
• (a) First step : sulfonation = 126
• (b) Second step : condensation = 127
• (c) Third step : neutralization = 128
• (d) Fourth step : filtration(in the case of calcium salt) = 129
• 6.3.4 Portland cement hydration in the presence of superplasticizers = 130
• 6.3.5 The crucial role of calcium sulfate = 136
• 6.3.6 Superplasticizer acceptance = 137
• 6.3.7 Concluding remarks = 138
• 6.4 Supplementary cementitious materials = 139
• 6.4.1 Introduction = 139
• 6.4.2 Silica fume = 140
• 6.4.3 Slag = 147
• 6.4.4 Fly ash = 152
• 6.4.5 Concluding remarks = 155
• References = 156
• 7 Materials selection = 162
• 7.1 Introduction = 162
• 7.2 Different classes of high-performance concrete = 162
• 7.3 Materials selection = 163
• 7.3.1 Selection of the cement = 163
• 7.3.2 Selection of the superplasticizer = 170
• (a) Melamine superplasticizers = 171
• (b) Naphthalene superplasticizers = 171
• (c) Lignosulfonate-based superplasticizers = 173
• (d) Quality control of superplasticizers = 173
• 7.3.3 Cement ／ superplasticizer compatibility = 175
• (a) The minislump method = 176
• (b) The Marsh cone method = 178
• (c) Saturation point = 180
• (d) Checking the consistency of the production of a particular cement or superplasticizer = 182
• (e) Different rheological behaviours = 183
• (f) Practical examples = 185
• 7.3.4 Superplasticizer dosage = 189
• (a) Solid or liquid form? = 190
• (b) Use of a set-retarding agent = 190
• (c) Delayed addition = 190
• 7.3.5 Selection of the final cementitious system = 190
• 7.3.6 Selection of silica fume 192
• (a) Introduction = 192
• (b) Variability = 192
• (c) What form of silica fume to use = 193
• (d) Quality control = 193
• (e) Silica fume dosage = 194
• 7.3.7 Selection of fly ash = 195
• (a) Quality control = 196
• 7.3.8 Selection of slag = 196
• (a) Dosage rate = 197
• (b) Quality control = 197
• 7.3.9 Possible limitations on the use of slag and fly ash in high-performance concrete = 198
• (a) Need for high early strength = 198
• (b) Cold weather concreting = 198
• (c) Freeze-thaw durability = 199
• (d) Decrease in maximum temperature = 199
• 7.3.10 Selection of aggregates = 199
• (a) Fine aggregate = 199
• (b) Crushed stone or gravel = 200
• (c) Selection of the maximum size of coarse aggregate = 202
• 7.4 Factorial design for optimizing the mix design of high-performance concrete = 203
• 7.4.1 Introduction = 203
• 7.4.2 Selection of the factorial design plan = 204
• 7.4.3 Sample calculation = 206
• (a) Iso cement dosage curves = 207
• (b) Iso dosage curves for the superplasticizer = 207
• (c) Iso cost curves = 208
• 7.5 Concluding remarks = 210
• References = 211
• 8 High-performance mix design methods = 215
• 8.1 Background = 215
• 8.2 ACI 211-1 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight and Mass Concrete = 216
• 8.3 Definitions and useful formulae = 221
• 8.3.1 Saturated surface dry state for aggregates = 221
• 8.3.2 Moisture content and water content = 223
• 8.3.3 Specific gravity = 225
• 8.3.4 Supplementary cementitious material content = 225
• (a) Case 1 = 226
• (b) Case 2 = 226
• 8.3.5 Superplasticizer dosage = 226
• (a) Superplasticizer specific gravity = 227
• (b) Solids content = 227
• (c) Mass of water contained in a certain volume of superplasticizer = 228
• (d) Other useful formulae = 229
• (e) Mass of solid particles and volume needed = 230
• (f) Volume of solid particles contained in $$V_{liq}$$ = 230
• (g) Sample calculation = 230
• 8.3.6 Water reducer and air-entraining agent dosages = 231
• 8.3.7 Required compressive strength = 231
• 8.4 Proposed method = 233
• 8.4.1 Mix design sheet = 237
• (a) Mix design calculations = 239
• (b) Sample calculation = 241
• (c) Calculations = 241
• 8.4.2 From trial batch proportions to 1㎥ composition(SSD conditions) = 246
• (a) Mix calculation = 246
• (b) Sample calculation = 248
• (c) Calculations = 249
• 8.4.3 Batch composition = 252
• (a) Mix calculation = 252
• (b) Sample calculation = 253
• (c) Calculations = 254
• 8.4.4 Limitations of the proposed method = 255
• 8.5 Other mix design methods = 257
• 8.5.1 Method suggested in ACT 363 Committee on high-strength concrete = 257
• 8.5.2 de Larrard method (de Larrard, 1990) = 259
• 8.5.3 Mehta and A$$\ddot i$$tcin simplified method = 261
• References = 263
• 9 Producing high-performance concrete = 265
• 9.1 Introduction = 265
• 9.2 Preparation before mixing = 267
• 9.3 Mixing = 269
• 9.4 Controlling the workability of high-performance concrete = 271
• 9.5 Segregation = 272
• 9.6 Controlling the temperature of fresh concrete = 272
• 9.6.1 Too cold a mix : increasing the temperature of fresh concrete = 273
• 9.6.2 Too hot a mix : cooling down the temperature of fresh concrete = 274
• 9.7 Producing air-entrained high-performance concretes = 276
• 9.8 Case studies = 278
• 9.8.1 Production of the concrete used to build the Jacques-Cartier bridge deck in Sherbrooke(Blais et al., 1996) = 278
• (a) Concrete specifications = 278
• (b) Composition of the high-performance concrete used = 278
• (c) Mixing sequence = 279
• (d) Economic considerations = 280
• 9.8.2 Production of a high-performance concrete in a dry-batch plant = 281
• (a) Portneuf bridge(Lessard et al., 1993) = 281
• (b) Scotia Plaza building(Ryell and Bickley, 1987) = 282
• References = 283
• 10 Preparation for concreting : what to do, how to do it and when to do it = 285
• 10.1 Introduction = 285
• 10.2 Preconstruction meeting = 287
• 10.3 Prequalification test programme = 288
• 10.3.1 Prequalification test programme for the construction of Bay-Adelaide Centre in Toronto, Canada = 289
• 10.3.2 Prequalification test programme for the 20 Mile Creek air-entrained high-performance concrete bridge on Highway 20(Bickley, 1996) = 290
• 10.3.3 Pilot test = 291
• 10.4 Quality control at the plant = 292
• 10.5 Quality control at the jobsite = 293
• 10.6 Testing = 294
• 10.6.1 Sampling = 295
• 10.7 Evaluation of quality = 295
• 10.8 Concluding remarks = 297
• References = 297
• 11 Delivering, placing and controlling high-performance concrete = 299
• 11.1 High-performance concrete transportation = 299
• 11.2 Final adjustment of the slump prior to placing = 300
• 11.3 Placing high-performance concrete = 301
• 11.3.1 Pumping = 301
• 11.3.2 Vibrating = 303
• 11.3.3 Finishing concrete slabs = 304
• 11.4 Special construction methods = 306
• 11.4.1 Mushrooming in column construction = 306
• 11.4.2 Jumping forms = 306
• 11.4.3 Slipforming = 307
• 11.4.4 Roller-compacted high-performance concrete = 309
• 11.5 Conclusion = 309
• References = 309
• 12 Curing high-performance concrete to minimize shrinkage = 311
• 12.1 Introduction = 311
• 12.2 The importance of appropriate curing = 312
• 12.3 Different types of shrinkage = 312
• 12.4 The hydration reaction and its consequences = 313
• 12.4.1 Strength = 315
• 12.4.2 Heat = 316
• 12.4.3 Volumetric contraction = 317
• (a) Apparent volume and solid volume = 317
• (b) Volumetric changes of concrete(apparent volume) = 318
• (c) Chemical contraction(absolute volume) = 319
• (d) The crucial role of the menisci in concrete capillaries in apparent volume changes = 320
• (e) Essential difference between self-desiccation and drying = 321
• (f) From the volumetric changes of the hydrated cement paste to the shrinkage of concrete = 321
• 12.5 Concrete shrinkage = 322
• 12.5.1 Shrinkage of thermal origin = 322
• 12.5.2 How to reduce autogenous and drying shrinkage and its effects by appropriate curing of high-performance concrete = 323
• 12.6 Why autogenous shrinkage is more important in high-performance concrete than in usual concrete = 324
• 12.7 Is the application of a curing compound sufficient to minimize or attenuate concrete shrinkage? = 327
• 12.8 The curing of high-performance concrete = 327
• 12.8.1 Large columns = 329
• (a) Volumetric changes at A = 329
• (b) Volumetric changes at B = 330
• (c) Volumetric changes at C = 331
• 12.8.2 Large beams = 331
• 12.8.3 Small beams = 332
• 12.8.4 Thin slabs = 332
• 12.8.5 Thick slabs = 333
• 12.8.6 Other cases = 334
• 12.9 How to be sure that concrete is properly cured in the field = 334
• 12.10 Conclusion = 335
• References = 336
• 13 Properties of fresh concrete = 338
• 13.1 Introduction = 338
• 13.2 Unit mass = 340
• 13.3 Slump = 340
• 13.3.1 Measurement = 340
• 13.3.2 Factors influencing the slump = 341
• 13.3.3 Improving the rheology of fresh concrete = 342
• 13.3.4 Slump loss = 343
• 13.4 Air content = 343
• 13.4.1 Non-air-entrained high-performance concrete = 343
• 13.4.2 Air-entrained high-performance concrete = 344
• 13.5 Set retardation = 345
• 13.6 Concluding remarks = 347
• References = 347
• 14 Temperature increase in high-performance concrete = 349
• 14.1 Introduction = 349
• 14.2 Comparison of the temperature increases within a 35 MPa concrete and a high-performance concrete = 350
• 14.3 Some consequences of the temperature increase within a concrete = 351
• 14.3.1 Effect of the temperature increase on the compressive strength of high-performance concrete = 352
• 14.3.2 Inhomogeneity of the temperature increase within a high-performance concrete structural element = 353
• 14.3.3 Effect of thermal gradients developed during high-performance concrete cooling = 353
• 14.3.4 Effect of the temperature increase on concrete microstructure = 354
• 14.4 Influence of different parameters on the temperature increase = 356
• 14.4.1 Influence of the cement dosage = 357
• 14.4.2 Influence of the ambient temperature = 360
• 14.4.3 Influence of the geometry of the structural element = 361
• 14.4.4 Influence of the nature of the forms = 363
• 14.4.5 Simultaneous influence of fresh concrete and ambient temperature = 364
• 14.4.6 Concluding remarks = 365
• 14.5 How to control the maximum temperature reached within a high-performance concrete structural element = 366
• 14.5.1 Decrease of the temperature of the delivered concrete = 366
• (a) Liquid nitrogen cooling = 367
• (b) Use of crushed ice = 367
• 14.5.2 Use of a retarder = 367
• 14.5.3 Use of supplementary cementitious materials = 368
• 14.5.4 Use of a cement with a low heat of hydration = 369
• 14.5.5 Use of hot water and insulated forms or heated and insulated blankets under winter conditions = 369
• 14.6 How to control thermal gradients = 369
• 14.7 Concluding remarks = 370
• References = 370
• 15 Testing high-performance concrete = 373
• 15.1 Introduction = 373
• 15.2 Compressive strength measurement = 374
• 15.2.1 Influence of the testing machine = 375
• (a) Testing limitations due to the capacity of the testing machine = 375
• (b) Influence of the dimensions of the spherical head = 377
• (c) Influence of the rigidity of the testing machine = 381
• 15.2.2 Influence of testing procedures = 382
• (a) How to prepare specimen ends = 383
• (b) Influence of eccentricity = 388
• 15.2.3 Influence of the specimen = 390
• (a) Influence of the specimen shape = 390
• (b) Influence of the specimen mould = 391
• (c) Influence of the specimen diameter = 392
• 15.2.4 Influence of curing = 395
• (a) Testing age = 395
• (b) How can high-performance concrete specimens be cured? = 396
• 15.2.5 Core strength versus specimen strength = 397
• 15.3 Stress-strain curve = 398
• 15.4 Shrinkage measurement = 400
• 15.4.1 Present procedure = 401
• 15.4.2 Shrinkage development in a high water ／ binder concrete = 402
• 15.4.3 Shrinkage development in a low water ／ binder concrete = 402
• 15.4.4 Initial mass increase and self-desiccation = 404
• 15.4.5 Initial compressive strength development and self-desiccation = 404
• 15.4.6 New procedure for drying shrinkage measurement = 405
• 15.5 Creep measurement = 407
• 15.5.1 Present sample curing(ASTM C 512) = 407
• 15.5.2 Development of different concrete deformations during a 28 day creep measurement = 407
• 15.5.3 Deformations occurring in a high water ／ binder ratio concrete subjected to early loading during a creep test = 408
• 15.5.4 Deformations occurring in a low water ／ binder ratio concrete subjected to early loading during a creep test = 409
• 15.5.5 Proposed curing procedure before loading a concrete specimen for creep measurement = 410
• 15.6 Concluding remarks on creep and shrinkage measurements = 411
• 15.7 Permeability measurement = 412
• 15.8 Elastic modulus measurement = 415
• References = 418
• 16 Mechanical properties of high-performance concrete = 423
• 16.1 Introduction = 423
• 16.2 Compressive strength = 425
• 16.2.1 Early-age compressive strength of high- performance concrete = 426
• 16.2.2 Effect of early temperature rise of high-performance concrete on compressive strength = 427
• 16.2.3 Influence of air content on compressive strength = 428
• 16.2.4 Long-term compressive strength = 429
• 16.3 Modulus of rupture and splitting tensile strength = 431
• 16.4 Modulus of elasticity = 433
• 16.4.1 Theoretical approach = 433
• 16.4.2 Empirical approach = 437
• 16.4.3 Concluding remarks on elastic modulus evaluation = 440
• 16.5 Poisson's ratio = 442
• 16.6 Stress-strain curves = 442
• 16.7 Creep and shrinkage = 445
• 16.8 Fatigue resistance of high-performance concrete = 448
• 16.8.1 Introduction = 448
• 16.8.2 Definitions = 450
• (a) W$$\ddot o$$hler diagrams = 450
• (b) Goodman diagrams = 451
• (c) Miner's rule = 451
• 16.8.3 Fatigue resistance of concrete structures = 452
• 16.9 Concluding remarks = 453
• References = 454
• 17 The durability of high-performance concrete = 458
• 17.1 Introduction = 458
• 17.2 The durability of usual concretes : a subject of major concern = 460
• 17.2.1 Durability : the key criterion to good design = 461
• 17.2.2 The critical importance of placing and curing in concrete durability = 462
• 17.2.3 The importance of the concrete `skin' = 463
• 17.2.4 Why are some old concretes more durable than some modern ones? = 466
• 17.3 Why high-performance concretes are more durable than usual concretes = 467
• 17.4 Durability at a microscopic level = 470
• 17.5 Durability at a macroscopic level = 471
• 17.6 Abrasion resistance = 472
• 17.6.1 Introduction = 472
• 17.6.2 Factors affecting the abrasion resistance of high-performance concrete = 473
• 17.6.3 Pavement applications = 476
• 17.6.4 Abrasion-erosion in hydraulic structures = 477
• 17.6.5 Ice abrasion = 477
• 17.7 Freezing and thawing resistance = 477
• 17.7.1 Freezing and thawing durability of usual concrete = 478
• 17.7.2 Freezing and thawing durability of high-performance concrete = 479
• 17.7.3 How many freeze-thaw cycles must a concrete sustain successfully before being said to be freeze-thaw resistant? = 483
• 17.7.4 Personal views = 484
• 17.8 Scaling resistance = 485
• 17.9 Resistance to chloride ion penetration = 486
• 17.10 Corrosion of reinforcing steel = 487
• 17.10.1 Use of stainless steel rebars = 489
• 17.10.2 Use of galvanized rebars = 489
• 17.10.3 Use of epoxy-coated rebars = 490
• 17.10.4 Use of glass fibre-reinforced rebars = 491
• 17.10.5 Effectiveness of the improvement of `covercrete' quality = 492
• (a) Time to initiate cracking = 492
• (b) Relationship between time to initiate cracking and initial current = 494
• 17.10.6 Concluding remarks = 495
• 17.11 Resistance to various forms of chemical attack = 496
• 17.12 Resistance to carbonation = 497
• 17.13 Resistance to sea water = 497
• 17.14 Alkali-aggregate reaction and high-performance concrete = 497
• 17.14.1 Introduction = 497
• 17.14.2 Essential conditions to see an AAR developing within a concrete = 498
• (a) Moisture condition and AAR = 498
• (b) Cement content, water／binder ratio and AAR = 498
• 17.14.3 Superplasticizer and AAR = 499
• 17.14.4 AAR prevention = 499
• 17.14.5 Extrapolation of the results obtained on usual concrete to high-performance concrete = 500
• 17.15 Resistance to fire = 500
• 17.15.1 Is high-performance concrete a fire-resistant material? = 500
• 17.15.2 The fire in the Channel Tunnel = 502
• (a) The circumstances = 502
• (b) The damage = 503
• 17.16 Conclusions = 503
• References = 504
• 18 Special high-performance concretes = 510
• 18.1 Introduction = 510
• 18.2 Air-entrained high-performance concrete = 511
• 18.2.1 Introduction = 511
• 18.2.2 Design of an air-entrained high-performance concrete mix = 512
• (a) Sample calculation = 512
• 18.2.3 Improvement of the rheology of high- performance concretes with entrained air = 515
• 18.2.4 Concluding remarks = 516
• 18.3 Lightweight high-performance concrete = 516
• 18.3.1 Introduction = 516
• 18.3.2 Fine aggregate = 518
• 18.3.3 Cementitious systems = 518
• 18.3.4 Mechanical properties = 519
• (a) Compressive strength = 519
• (b) Modulus of rupture, splitting strength and direct tensile strength = 520
• (c) Elastic modulus = 520
• (d) Bond strength = 520
• (e) Shrinkage and creep = 520
• (f) Post-peak behaviour = 521
• (g) Fatigue resistance = 521
• (h) Thermal characteristics = 521
• 18.3.5 Uses of high-performance lightweight concrete = 522
• 18.3.6 About the unit mass of lightweight concrete = 522
• 18.3.7 About the absorption of lightweight aggregates = 524
• 18.3.8 About the water content of lightweight aggregates when making concrete = 525
• 18.3.9 Concluding remarks = 526
• 18.4 Heavyweight high-performance concrete = 526
• 18.5 Fibre-reinforced high-performance concrete = 527
• 18.6 Confined high-performance concrete = 530
• 18.7 Roller-compacted high-performance concrete = 534
• 18.8 Concluding remarks = 540
• References = 540
• 19 Ultra high-strength cement-based materials = 545
• 19.1 Introduction = 545
• 19.2 Brunauer et al. technique = 549
• 19.3 DSP = 549
• 19.4 MDF = 550
• 19.5 RPC = 551
• Selected references = 553
• 20 A look ahead = 556
• 20.1 Concrete : the most widely used construction material = 556
• 20.2 Short-term trends for high-performance concrete = 558
• 20.3 The durability market rather than only the high-strength market = 560
• 20.4 Long-term trends for high-performance concrete = 561
• 20.5 High-performance concrete competition = 562
• 20.6 Research needed = 562
• References = 563
• Afterword by Pierre Richard = 564
• Suggested reading = 566
• Index = 569