The "NRC Carbon Neutrality Research Team," established in June 2021 under the National Research Council for Economics, Humanities and Social Sciences, conducts research surrounding the topic of achieving carbon neutrality in Korea in order to promote ...
The "NRC Carbon Neutrality Research Team," established in June 2021 under the National Research Council for Economics, Humanities and Social Sciences, conducts research surrounding the topic of achieving carbon neutrality in Korea in order to promote social discourse, policy proposals, impact analysis and implementation evaluation of said policies. In the first year (2021-2022), key issues in pursuing carbon neutrality in various sectors were identified and policies to overcome them have been recommended. In the second year (2022-2023), the interconnections between different policy sectors and markets were first analyzed, to then advise on how to accelerate the low-carbon transition via the normalization of energy and carbon markets. This third year's (2023-2024) research focuses on methods of evaluating progress made from implementing carbon neutrality (CN) policies. Domestically, improved methods of monitoring proposed in this research shall strengthen the Korean government’s capacity to mitigate climate change, while globally, the government shall be better prepared for the first drafting of the Biennial Transparency Report (BTR).
In this third-year study, the reporting guidelines for BTR provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and best practice cases in key developed countries have been studied in order to recognize the international standards for CN policy implementation and evaluation. Then, valuations and criticisms made by accredited international organizations about the current level of progress made in Korea have been further analyzed to identify problems that persist in the nation’s pursuit of achieving CN and understand which are the areas of progress and domestic efforts that are currently perceived negatively due to ineffective reporting. Finally, current methods of CN policy implementation and evaluation employed domestically in Korea have been reviewed comprehensively in light of the findings from previous analyses. As a result, a proposal has been made to adopt an improved implementation review system that shall allow for a clearly structured monitoring framework and a more accurate tracking of Korea's progress in mitigating climate change.
The proposal consists of four steps. One, a systematic framework for selecting and prioritizing policies and measures (P&Ms) for review must be introduced. Within this framework, the selection of key policies from the National Master Plan and ministerial strategies for CN must come first. Then, the framework shall adopt a more sophisticated process for identifying multisectoral policies, which stimulate greenhouse gas emissions reduction in synergy with socioeconomic co-benefits. In consideration of how the number of target P&Ms that are currently monitored for review in Korea (81 P&Ms in 2022, 37 in 2024) is noticeably lower than that in other countries, the target number shall be elevated to approximately 100, so as to enhance the nation’s implementation results.
Two, there is an urgent need to shift towards quantitative indicators (and away from qualitative ones) in order to accurately track the eventual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction effect. The country’s current method of P&M implementation review is built on three pillars: responsible planning, accountable policy implementation, and the achievement of desired outcomes. While the international standards suggest that indicators such as policy objectives, policy typology, implementation status, target sector(s) and/or gas(es), implementing entity(ies), and actual or estimated emissions reduction(or other performance indicators) are key to tracking timely implementation and desired outcomes, the indicators that are currently adopted in Korea tend to be more qualitative and are poorly defined in comparison. Proving a more restrictive definition for what may be considered an appropriate indicator, and mandatory guidelines for reporting on the used methodology for quantifying the implementation effects would stimulate the necessary shift towards quantification and a more transparent reporting.
Three, a strong feedback process must be embedded within the review framework. In order to do so, methods for analyzing the emissions reduction will need to be enhanced, thereby strengthening the domestic capacities to Measure, Report, and Verify (MRV) the overall levels of GHG emissions and carbon prices, as well as to monitor international organizations’ evaluation of Korea. This shall invite independent and specialized agencies to closely collaborate towards a shared goal and, at the same time, inspire solutions for governing a complex feedback system.
Lastly, four, the shift towards improved and quantified methods of policy implementation review must be prioritized for key CN policies. Four such key policies have been selected in this research, and possible methods or approach to monitor and review their implementation have been proposed. The four policies have been each selected as following: direct PPAs (Powerpurchase agreements) in the energy sector, the eco-friendly vehicle(public buses) expansion in the transport sector, the agrivoltaic expansion in the agriculture and livestock sector, and the national carbon pricing mechanism that is newly introduced in this research as the nation’s key policy in the cross-cutting sector.
Direct PPAs are a crucial policy tool for the energy sector in achieving RE100, as it contributes to the liberalization of the electricity market and the expansion of renewable energy (RE). Direct PPAs were officially introduced in Korea in September 2022; yet, agreements signed thus far(by year 2023) account for less than 2GW. Lack of RE supply, comparatively low price competitiveness, and transparency issues (e.g., grid usage fees and other PPA-specific tariffs) have ensued as major obstacles to successfully implementing the policy. As a way to monitor its progress, adopting PPA-specific indicators such as volume indicators (e.g., the amount of RE supply, the number of agreement contracts, the number of participating companies), price indicators (a cost comparison between direct PPA and alternative methods of purchasing RE such as REC or green premium), and policy indicators (e.g., transparent operation of transmission and distribution fees, passing regulations in favor of direct PPAs) are recommended.
In the transport sector, the transition to electric and hydrogen vehicles is crucial as it accounts for about 80% of the sector's reduction target. The government monitors its relative annual performance, but lacks specific indicators to observe the transition of privatized vehicles, especially those for route buses. Route buses are representative of public transportation and potentially a highly efficient tool for reducing GHG emissions. To maximize its efficiency and monitor its transition to eco-friendly buses, the following primary indicators have been proposed: the number of electric and/or hydrogen buses deployed, expansion of electric and/or hydrogen charging stations, and any additional implementation efforts (e.g., private sector purchase targets). Each primary indicator is then further specified as secondary indicators (e.g., primary: charging stations, secondary: the ratio of charging stations to contemporaneously operating buses) so that detail may add to improved accuracy when monitoring progress.
Korea’s agriculture and livestock sector presents much need for improvement, as it only presents a general guideline (without providing any specific policy objectives) for mitigating climate change. Due to slow institutional reform favoring small-scale power generation projects, and ineffective land-use plans, energy transition policies in the agriculture and rural areas (e.g., rural solar power) have been limited and gained little to no local support. As an alternative solution, the agrivoltaics were introduced as a way to generate solar energy without harming the land while allowing for continued farm activities and crop production. In this study, a quantified goal has been proposed to expand agrivoltaics within the country up to 1GW in capacity (equivalent of 2,000ha, or approximately 1/3 of the nation‘s generation target for solar power in all rural areas by 2030). Consequently, the team proposes to introduce the total amount of annual agrivoltaic power generation and the permitted farmland area for installing agrivoltaics as indicators to monitor implementation.
Lastly, monitoring of Korea’s carbon price mechanism has been recommended in this study as Korea’s leading CN policy whose impact cuts across all sectors. When a given good’s market price is readjusted to the actual social cost of carbon (having added the social cost incurred by the losses or damages from carbon emitted during production), price signals can be corrected in support of low-carbon transition and burden reallocation. According to the OECD’s methods and definition of "Net Effective Carbon Rate (NECR)" and "Net Effective Energy Rate (NEER)", Korea’s current carbon price (comprising not only of the ETS emission allowances, but also of energy taxes and subsidies) would be approximately KRW 46,000, falling short of the international rate (OECD) that is recommended for the year 2030 (EUR 60~120, ca. KRW 80,000~160,000). Carbon pricing should be evaluated in its comprehensive role regarding burden sharing, reallocation of government budget, transition towards low-emission technologies, and more.
Keywords : Biennial Transparency Report, Carbon Neutrality Policies and Measures, GST(Global Stocktake), Direct PPA(Power purchase agreements), Eco-friendly Vehicle(Public Buses) Expansion Policy, Agrivoltaic Expansion Policy, Carbon Pricing Mechanism