Introduction to criminology

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• preface = xix
• part 1 Crime and Criminal Justice = 1
• 1 Introduction to Criminology = 3
• The Scientific Study of Crime = 4
• Criminology and Alternative Perspectives = 4
• Aims and Limitations of Criminology = 4
• Debunking Crime Myths = 4
• Policy Proposals = 5
• Evaluation Research = 5
• Limitations of Criminology = 6
• Preview = 7
• part 2 The Nature and Extent of Crime = 11
• 2 Images and Definitions of Crime = 13
• Popular Images of Crime and Criminals = 14
• Media Images = 14
• The "Crime Problem" = 15
• The "Typical Criminal" = 16
• Three Definitions of Crime = 17
• Legalistic Definition = 17
• Intention = 17
• Knowledge = 18
• Freedom = 18
• Labeling Definition = 18
• Harms-Based Definition = 20
• Sutherland's Statement of White-Collar Crime = 20
• Crime as Behavior That Violates Human Rights = 20
• Analogous Forms of Social Injury = 21
• Rating the Definitions = 22
• Models of Law Creation = 23
• Consensus Theory = 23
• Moral Entrepreneurship = 23
• Conflict Theory = 24
• Laws, Crime, and Actual Conditions = 25
• Summary = 25
• 3 Measures of Crime = 29
• History of Crime Reporting = 30
• Sources of Crime Data = 31
• Uniform Crime Reports(UCR) = 31
• Part Ⅰ of the UCR = 31
• Part Ⅱ of the UCR = 32
• Crimes "Cleared" by Arrest = 33
• Other Information in the UCR = 33
• Criticisms of the UCR = 34
• Crime Rates = 35
• National Crime Victimization Survey(NCVS) = 35
• Victimization Rates = 35
• Criticisms of the NCVS = 35
• Comparison of the NCVS and UCR Data = 37
• Self-Report Surveys = 37
• Benefits and Problems of Self-Report Research = 38
• Other Sources of Crime Data = 39
• Summary = 40
• 4 Myths and Facts About Crime = 43
• Myth 1 : Crime Is Increasing = 45
• Myth 2 : Most Crime Is Violent = 46
• Myth 3 : Crime Occurs Mainly in the Lower Classes = 47
• Myth 4 : Crime Is Bad for Everyone = 48
• Myth 5 : Most Criminals Are Hard-Core and Strangers to the Victim = 49
• Myth 6 : Most Crimes Are Solved and Offenders Punished = 51
• Myth 7 : Most Criminals Who Go to Trial "Get Off" = 52
• The Exclusionary Rule = 52
• Myth 8 : There Is No Relationship Between Guns and Violence = 53
• Myth 9 : Women Are Becoming "As Bad As" Men = 54
• Myth 10 : The Way to Remedy Crime Is To Get Tough = 56
• Myth 11 : Drugs Cause Crime = 58
• Myth 12 : Nothing Can Be Done To Reduce Crime = 59
• Summary = 60
• part 3 Types of Crime = 63
• 5 Violent Interpersonal Crimes = 65
• Nature, Extent, and Costs = 66
• Common Misperceptions About Violent Crime = 66
• Patterns of Victimization = 67
• Costs of Violent Crime = 68
• Offenders and Victims = 68
• Index Offenses = 69
• Homicide = 69
• Felony-Murder Doctrine = 69
• Misdemeanor-Manslaughter Doctrine = 69
• Trends in Murder Rates = 70
• Demographic Patterns for Murder = 70
• Rape = 71
• Societal Stereotypes About Rape = 72
• Changes in Legal Codes and Court Proceedings = 73
• Reporting of Rape = 74
• Mate Victims of Rape = 74
• False Reports = 74
• Demographic Patterns for Rape = 74
• Assault and Battery = 74
• Patterns of Assault = 75
• Hate Crimes = 75
• Robbery = 76
• Offenses Within the Family = 77
• Domestic Violence = 77
• Research Controversy over Patterns of Victimization = 77
• Domestic Violence as a Family Matter = 77
• Danger to Victims of Domestic Violence = 78
• Arrest Patterns = 78
• The Battered Woman's Syndrome Defense = 79
• Patterns of Abuse = 80
• Child Abuse = 80
• Intergenerational Patterns of Abuse = 80
• Trends in Child Abuse = 80
• Elder Abuse = 81
• Societal Issues = 81
• Guns = 82
• Guns and Crime = 82
• Debate over Gun Control = 83
• Media Violence = 83
• Debate over Control of Media Violence = 83
• Violence and Masculinity = 85
• Summary = 85
• 6 Crimes of the Powerful = 91
• Definitions of Elite Crime = 92
• White-Collar or Occupational Crime = 92
• Corporate and Organizational Crime = 92
• Governmental Crime = 93
• Nature, Extent, and Costs = 94
• Double Standards of Justice = 94
• Perils of White-Collar Crime = 94
• Financial Costs = 95
• Dangers = 96
• The Pinto Case = 96
• The Firestone Case = 96
• Unsafe Working Conditions = 96
• Misconceptions of Danger = 96
• White-Collar Crime and Intent = 97
• Profit vs. Harm = 97
• Civil vs. Criminal Court = 97
• Sentencing Trends = 98
• Offenders and Victims = 98
• Power : Crime vs. Social Harm = 98
• Offenders = 99
• Gender and Elite Crime = 99
• Victims = 99
• Hidden Crime = 99
• Welfare for the Wealthy = 100
• Government Support of the Wealthy = 100
• Subsidies to the Wealthy = 100
• Crime and Deviance in High Places = 100
• Corporate Deviance = 101
• Corporate Dumping = 102
• Third World Markets = 103
• Environmental Racism = 103
• Price Gouging = 104
• Governmental Crime = 105
• Assassination Attempts = 105
• Experiments on U.S. Citizens = 105
• Harassment of U.S. Citizens = 105
• Contemporary Governmental Crime = 106
• Enforcement = 107
• Progress in Enforcement = 108
• Corporate Accountability = 109
• Summary = 109
• 7 Conventional Property Crime = 113
• Definitions of Property Crime = 114
• Nature, Extent, and Costs = 115
• Nature of Property Crime = 115
• Extent of Property Crime = 116
• Costs = 116
• Offenders and Victims = 117
• Offenders = 117
• Race and Property Crimes = 118
• Gender and Property Crimes = 118
• Age and Property Crimes = 118
• Victims = 119
• Index Offenses = 120
• Larceny-Theft = 120
• Burglary = 121
• Motor Vehicle Theft = 122
• Arson = 122
• Non-Index Offenses = 123
• Forgery, Fraud, and Embezzlement = 124
• Computer Crime = 125
• Societal Issues = 125
• Rationales for Class Distinctions = 126
• Moral Values and Stealing = 126
• Controlling Property Crime = 128
• Summary = 129
• 8 Public Order Crimes = 133
• Defining Public Order Crimes = 134
• Standards of Morality = 134
• Nature, Extent, and Costs = 135
• Offenders and Victims = 136
• Offenders = 137
• Victims = 138
• Historical Patterns of Regulation = 141
• Prohibition = 141
• Prostitution = 142
• Illegal Drugs = 143
• Gambling = 144
• Abortion = 144
• Pornography = 144
• Arguments About Decriminalization = 146
• Arguments To Decriminalize = 146
• Arguments for Maintaining Criminality = 146
• Organized Crime = 147
• Activities of Organized Crime = 147
• Gambling = 149
• Prostitution = 149
• Drug Trafficking = 149
• Organized Crime : Myth or Reality? = 149
• Summary = 151
• part 4 Theories of Crime = 155
• YOUR PERSONAL GUIDE TO THEORY = 156
• You Too Are a Theorist = 156
• Crime Theories Are Understandable = 156
• Ideal Components of a Good Theory = 157
• Plausibility = 157
• Real-Life Evidence = 157
• Falsifiability = 157
• What To Look For = 158
• Background = 158
• Core Propositions = 158
• Position on Agency(Responsibility) = 158
• Policy Implications = 159
• Critique = 159
• Final Caveats = 159
• No Theory Is Definitive = 160
• Understanding in Depth = 160
• 9 Crime as Individually Chosen Behavior = 163
• Background = 164
• Intellectual Climate = 164
• Eighteenth-Century Criminal Justice = 166
• Core Propositions = 168
• Classical Criminology's Theory of Criminal Behavior = 168
• The Individual Is Self-Interested = 168
• The Individual Is Rational = 168
• Behavior Is Freely Chosen = 168
• Pleasure Seeking Often Results in Crime = 169
• Classical Criminology's Theory of Criminal Justice = 170
• Laws Shape Behavior = 170
• Punishment Should Be a Deterrent = 170
• Position on Agency(Responsibility) = 172
• The Individual Side of Agency = 172
• The Social／Structural Side of Agency = 172
• Policy Implications = 172
• Subsequent Developments = 173
• Becker's Economic Model of Crime = 173
• Gordon's Critique of Crime and Capitalism = 174
• Deterrence Theory = 175
• Rational Choice Theory = 176
• Critique = 177
• Adequacy = 177
• Comprehensive Nature = 178
• Current Appeal = 178
• Summary = 179
• 10 Theories of the Driven Offender = 183
• Background = 184
• Positivism = 184
• Evolutionary Thought = 185
• Criminological Thought in the 19th Century = 185
• Core Propositions = 186
• Rejection of Classical Criminology = 187
• Scientific Study of Crime = 187
• The Born Criminal = 188
• Identification of Criminals = 189
• Position on Agency(Responsibility) = 190
• Policy Implications = 190
• Subsequent Developments = 191
• Genetic Influences = 191
• Body Type Theories = 191
• Crime and Human Nature = 192
• Adoption Studies = 193
• XYY Theory = 193
• Other Biological Factors Associated with Crime = 194
• Autonomic Nervous System Deficiency = 194
• Brain Dysfunctions = 194
• Sex Hormones = 194
• Dietary Conditions = 195
• Summary of Subsequent Biological Developments = 196
• Freudian Interpretations of Crime = 197
• Personality Development = 197
• The Unconscious = 197
• Using Freudian Thought To Explain Crime = 197
• Summary of Freudian Interpretations on Crime = 199
• Low Self-Control = 199
• Critique = 200
• Adequacy = 200
• Comprehensive Nature = 200
• Current Appeal = 200
• Summary = 200
• 11 Micro Social Causes of Crime : Social Ecology and Differential Association = 205
• Background = 206
• The Chicago School = 206
• The Search for Root Causes = 208
• Discipline Building = 208
• The Progressive Era = 208
• Core Propositions = 208
• The Social Ecology Theory of Crime = 208
• The City as a Natural Area = 208
• The Concentric Zone Model = 209
• Delinquency／Crime Varies by Zone = 209
• Neither Individuals Nor Groups Are Criminogenic = 210
• Differential Association Theory = 211
• Criminal Behavior Is Learned = 211
• Communication Within Intimate Personal Groups = 212
• Techniques and Rationalizations = 212
• Unfavorable Definition of the Legal Code = 212
• Definitions Favorable to Law Violation = 212
• Differential Association Varies = 212
• Summary = 213
• Position on Agency(Responsibility) = 213
• Policy Implications = 214
• Subsequent Developments = 214
• Routine Activities = 214
• Differential Identification = 215
• Critique = 216
• Adequacy = 216
• Comprehensive Nature = 216
• Current Appeal = 218
• Summary = 219
• 12 Micro Social Causes of Crime : Labeling and Social Control = 223
• Background = 224
• Societal Changes = 224
• Need for New Focus = 224
• Sociological Theory = 225
• Self-Report Studies = 225
• Core Propositions = 225
• Core Propositions of Labeling Theory = 225
• Etiology Left Unexplored = 225
• No Act Inherently Criminal = 226
• Behavior Becomes Criminal When So Labeled = 226
• A Label Has Consequences = 227
• Summary of Labeling Theory = 228
• Core Propositions of Social Control Theory = 228
• Powerful Inducements to Commit Crimes = 228
• Most Individuals Are Constrained = 229
• Summary of Social Control Theory = 229
• Position on Agency(Responsibility) = 230
• Policy Implications = 231
• Subsequent Developments = 232
• Shaming = 232
• Family Structure = 232
• Low Self-Control = 234
• Critique = 234
• Adequacy = 234
• Comprehensive Nature = 235
• Current Appeal = 236
• Summary = 236
• 13 Macro Social Causes of Crime : Strain, Marxist, and Feminist Theories = 241
• Background = 242
• Civil Rights Movement = 242
• Anti-War Movement = 242
• The "New" Sociology = 243
• Core Propositions = 244
• Merton's Strain Theory = 244
• Cultural Goals and Social Structural Means = 244
• Modes of Adaptation = 244
• Crime Produced by Macro Social Forces = 246
• Summary of Merton's Strain Theory = 246
• Marxist Theory of Crime = 246
• Capitalism Produces Crime = 246
• Capitalist State Defines Crime, Controls Justice = 247
• Ideology and False Consciousness Justify Existing Practices = 248
• The Powerful Commit the Most Serious Crimes = 248
• Social Justice Must Precede Criminal Justice = 248
• Summary of Marxist Theory of Crime = 249
• Feminist Theory of Crime = 249
• Society Shaped by Patriarchal Relations = 250
• Women Must Be Included = 250
• Gender-Sensitive Explanations Required = 250
• Unfair Treatment of Women in Justice System = 251
• Summary of Feminist Theory of Crime = 251
• Position on Agency(Responsibility) = 251
• Policy Implications = 252
• Subsequent Developments = 255
• Extensions of Strain Theory = 255
• Left Realism = 255
• Peacemaking Criminology = 256
• Postmodern Criminology = 256
• Critique = 256
• Adequacy = 256
• Comprehensive Nature = 257
• Current Appeal = 257
• Summary = 258
• part 5 The Criminal Justice System = 261
• 14 Police = 263
• History of Policing = 264
• Early English Society = 264
• Colonial America = 265
• The Professionalization of Policing : London's Constabulary = 266
• American Police Expansion in Mid-Nineteenth Century = 266
• Reforms of the 1930s to 1940s = 267
• Costs = 267
• Types of Police = 268
• Federal Police = 268
• State Law-Enforcement Agencies = 268
• Local Police = 269
• Campus Police = 269
• Private Police = 270
• Current Issues and Trends = 270
• Functions of the Police = 270
• Police Recruitment = 272
• Community Policing = 273
• Women in Policing = 275
• Current Problems = 276
• Manning's "Mission Impossible" Thesis = 276
• Professionalism vs. Bureaucratization = 277
• Functional Awkwardness = 277
• Police Misconduct = 277
• Public Relations = 279
• Summary = 280
• 15 Courts = 285
• Contemporary Issues Facing Courts = 286
• Cost = 286
• Types of Courts = 287
• Types of Law = 287
• Judicial Law = 287
• Administrative Law = 287
• Procedural Law = 287
• Constitutional Law = 288
• Civil Courts and Criminal Courts = 289
• Trial Courts and Appellate Courts = 289
• State Courts = 290
• Federal Courts = 290
• Issues and Trends = 291
• Judges = 291
• Qualifications of Judges = 291
• Judges' Salaries = 291
• Problems of Bias = 291
• Sentencing Strategies = 294
• Rehabilitation = 294
• Deterrence = 294
• Incapacitation = 294
• Retribution = 294
• Types of Sentences = 295
• Indeterminate Sentences = 295
• Determinate Sentencing = 294
• Mandatory Sentencing = 296
• Other Sentencing Trends = 296
• The Death Penalty = 297
• Appellate Review = 299
• Execution of Juveniles = 299
• Morality and the Death Penalty = 299
• Racial and Social Class Discrimination = 300
• Cost of Executions = 301
• Current Problems = 302
• Court Overload = 302
• Plea Bargaining = 304
• Other Contributing Factors = 304
• Frivolous Litigation = 304
• Prisoners' Lawsuits = 305
• Racial Disparity in Sentencing = 305
• Gender Disparity in Sentencing = 306
• The Muncy Act = 306
• Modern Gender Differentials = 306
• Summary = 307
• 16 Corrections = 313
• Theories of Punishment = 314
• Retribution = 314
• Deterrence = 314
• Types of Deterrence = 315
• Conditions Under Which Deterrence Works = 315
• Rehabilitation = 315
• Incapacitation = 316
• Selective Incapacitation = 316
• History of Corrections = 317
• Punishments Before the Industrial Revolution = 317
• Punishment and Labor Demands = 318
• Decline in the Use of Torture = 319
• Nineteenth-Century American Punishments = 319
• The Pennsylvania System = 320
• The Auburn System = 320
• The Reformatory System = 321
• Twentieth-Century Punishments = 321
• Prison Industries = 322
• The Big House = 323
• The Modern Era = 324
• Professional Administration = 325
• Prison Litigation = 325
• The Shift to Custody and Control = 325
• Increases in Women's Corrections = 326
• Upward Trends in Incarceration = 327
• Summary = 328
• 17 Patterns of Incarceration = 331
• Cost of Corrections = 332
• Monetary Costs = 332
• Social Costs = 333
• The Prison System = 334
• Prisons for Men = 335
• Prison Classification = 336
• Prison Culture = 337
• Gangs in Prison = 338
• Prison Violence = 338
• Prisons for Women = 338
• Incarcerated Mothers = 340
• Jails = 340
• Shock Incarceration or "Boot Camps" = 341
• Private Corrections = 342
• Co-Corrections = 342
• Community Corrections = 344
• Community Corrections as an Alternative to Prison = 344
• Costs of Community Corrections = 346
• Issues and Trends = 346
• AIDS = 346
• Tuberculosis = 347
• Mental Illness = 347
• Geriatric Issues = 348
• Correctional Officers = 349
• Salaries in Corrections = 350
• Job Satisfaction Among Correctional Officers = 350
• Women in Correctional Work = 350
• Sexual Harassment of Inmates = 351
• Overcrowding = 352
• Overcrowding and Early Release = 352
• Summary = 353
• part 6 Conclusion = 357
• 18 Current Themes in Criminology = 359
• Current Themes = 360
• Theme 1 Crime Is Disproportionately a Mate Enterprise = 360
• Theme 2 Crime Crosscuts Class and Race = 360
• Theme 3 Guilt Is an Insufficient Deterrent to Crime = 361
• Theme 4 Many Types of Serious Wrongdoing Are Not Adequately Addressed = 361
• Theme 5 Crime Is Individually Chosen and Structurally Determined = 362
• Theme 6 Commitment to Ideology Can Handicap Crime Policy = 362
• Definition of "Serious Crime" = 362
• Ideological Gridlock = 363
• Ideological Triage = 363
• Theme 7 Results of Criminal Justice "Toughness" Are Unclear = 364
• Theme 8 Future Crime Patterns in the United States = 366
• name index = 369
• subject index = 372