The Atopic March: Progression from Atopic Dermatitis to Allergic Rhinitis and Asthma

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is an inflammatory disease characterized by pruritic skin lesions. The pathogenesis of AD may include disrupted epidermal barrier function, immunodysregulation, and IgE-mediated sensitization to food and environmental allergens. AD is also part of a process called the atopic march, a progression from AD to allergic rhinitis and asthma. This has been supported by multiple cross-sectional and longitudinal studies and experimental data. Research on the mechanisms of AD has been centered on the adaptive immune system with an emphasis on the T-helper 1 (Th1)-Th2 paradigm. Recently, the conceptual focus has largely shifted to include a primary defect in the epithelial barrier as an initial event in AD providing a significant insight into the disease initiation and pointing to a complex secondary interplay of environmental and immunological sequelae with barrier disruption. Further understanding of AD will help the development of more effective treatment for AD and ultimately, preventative algorithms for the atopic march. In this review we highlight recent advances in our understanding of the pathogenesis of AD and the atopic march.

참고문헌 (Reference)

1 ISAAC, "Worldwide variation in prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and atopic eczema: ISAAC. The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) Steering Committee" 351 : 1225-1232, 1998

2 Asher MI, "Worldwide time trends in the prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and eczema in childhood: ISAAC Phases One and Three repeat multicountry cross-sectional surveys" 368 : 733-743, 2006

3 Stern DA, "Wheezing and bronchial hyper-responsiveness in early childhood as predictors of newly diagnosed asthma in early adulthood: a longitudinal birth-cohort study" 372 : 1058-1064, 2008

4 Stemmler S, "Two common loss-of-function mutations within the filaggrin gene predispose for early onset of atopic dermatitis" 127 : 722-724, 2007

5 Poulos LM, "Trends in hospitalizations for anaphylaxis, angioedema, and urticaria in Australia, 1993-1994 to 2004-2005" 120 : 878-884, 2007

6 Zheng T, "Transgenic expression of interleukin-13 in the skin induces a pruritic dermatitis and skin remodeling" 129 : 742-751, 2009

7 Werner Y, "Transepidermal water loss in dry and clinically normal skin in patients with atopic dermatitis" 65 : 102-105, 1985

8 Li M, "Topical vitamin D3 and low-calcemic analogs induce thymic stromal lymphopoietin in mouse keratinocytes and trigger an atopic dermatitis" 103 : 11736-11741, 2006

9 Liu YJ, "Thymic stromal lymphopoietin: master switch for allergic inflammation" 203 : 269-273, 2006

10 Allakhverdi Z, "Thymic stromal lymphopoietin is released by human epithelial cells in response to microbes, trauma, or inflammation and potently activates mast cells" 204 : 253-258, 2007

11 Grice K, "The relationship of transepidermal water loss to skin temperature in psoriasis and eczema" 64 : 313-315, 1975

12 Kay J, "The prevalence of childhood atopic eczema in a general population" 30 : 35-39, 1994

13 Kapoor R, "The prevalence of atopic triad in children with physician-confirmed atopic dermatitis" 58 : 68-73, 2008

14 Laughter D, "The prevalence of atopic dermatitis in Oregon schoolchildren" 43 : 649-655, 2000

15 Illi S, "The natural course of atopic dermatitis from birth to age 7 years and the association with asthma" 113 : 925-931, 2004

16 McGrath JA, "The filaggrin story: novel insights into skin-barrier function and disease" 14 : 20-27, 2008

17 Henderson J, "The burden of disease associated with filaggrin mutations: a population-based, longitudinal birth cohort study" 121 : 872-877, 2008

18 Wüthrich B, "The atopic eczema/dermatitis syndrome. Epidemiology, natural course, and immunology of the IgE-associated (“extrinsic”) and the nonallergic (“intrinsic”) AEDS" 13 : 1-5, 2003

19 Leyden JJ, "Staphylococcus aureus in the lesions of atopic dermatitis" 90 : 525-530, 1974

20 Choi H, "Sphingosylphosphorylcholine down-regulates filaggrin gene transcription through NOX5-based NADPH oxidase and cyclooxygenase-2 in human keratinocytes" 80 : 95-103, 2010

21 Demehri S, "Skin-derived TSLP triggers progression from epidermal-barrier defects to asthma" 7 : e1000067-, 2009

22 van der Hulst AE, "Risk of developing asthma in young children with atopic eczema: a systematic review" 120 : 565-569, 2007

23 Guerra S, "Rhinitis as an independent risk factor for adult-onset asthma" 109 : 419-425, 2002

24 Shaaban R, "Rhinitis and onset of asthma: a longitudinal population-based study" 372 : 1049-1057, 2008

25 Johansson SG, "Revised nomenclature for allergy for global use: Report of the Nomenclature Review Committee of the World Allergy Organization" 113 : 832-836, 2004

26 Eigenmann PA, "Prevalence of IgE-mediated food allergy among children with atopic dermatitis" 101 : E8-, 1998

27 Seidenari S, "Objective assessment of the skin of children affected by atopic dermatitis: a study of pH, capacitance and TEWL in eczematous and clinically uninvolved skin" 75 : 429-433, 1995

28 Barker JN, "Null mutations in the filaggrin gene (FLG) determine major susceptibility to early-onset atopic dermatitis that persists into adulthood" 127 : 564-567, 2007

29 Cork MJ, "New perspectives on epidermal barrier dysfunction in atopic dermatitis: gene-environment interactions" 118 : 3-21, 2006

30 Leung DY, "New insights into atopic dermatitis" 113 : 651-657, 2004

31 Novembre E, "Natural history of “intrinsic” atopic dermatitis" 56 : 452-453, 2001

32 Kulig M, "Natural course of sensitization to food and inhalant allergens during the first 6 years of life" 103 : 1173-1179, 1999

33 Wuthrich B, "Natural course of AEDS" 57 : 267-268, 2002

34 Weidinger S, "Loss-of-function variations within the filaggrin gene predispose for atopic dermatitis with allergic sensitizations" 118 : 214-219, 2006

35 Smith FJ, "Loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding filaggrin cause ichthyosis vulgaris" 38 : 337-342, 2006

36 Kim BE, "Loricrin and involucrin expression is down-regulated by Th2 cytokines through STAT-6" 126 : 332-337, 2008

37 Ricci G, "Long-term follow-up of atopic dermatitis: retrospective analysis of related risk factors and association with concomitant allergic diseases" 55 : 765-771, 2006

38 Andoh T, "Leukotriene B(4) mediates sphingosylphosphorylcholine-induced itch-associated responses in mouse skin" 129 : 2854-2860, 2009

39 Sugiura H, "Large-scale DNA microarray analysis of atopic skin lesions shows overexpression of an epidermal differentiation gene cluster in the alternative pathway and lack of protective gene expression in the cornified envelope" 152 : 146-149, 2005

40 Ying S, "Lack of filaggrin expression in the human bronchial mucosa" 118 : 1386-1388, 2006

41 Gupta J, "Intrinsically defective skin barrier function in children with atopic dermatitis correlates with disease severity" 121 : 725-730, 2008

42 Lee EB, "Increased serum thymic stromal lymphopoietin in children with atopic dermatitis" 21 (21): e457-e460, 2010

43 Mischke D, "Genes encoding structural proteins of epidermal cornification and S100 calcium-binding proteins form a gene complex (“epidermal differentiation complex”) on human chromosome 1q21" 106 : 989-992, 1996

44 Spergel JM, "From atopic dermatitis to asthma: the atopic march" 105 : 99-106, 2010

45 Kissling S, "Follow-up of atopic dermatitis after early childhood" 44 : 569-573, 1993

46 Weidinger S, "Filaggrin mutations strongly predispose to early-onset and extrinsic atopic dermatitis" 127 : 724-726, 2007

47 Morar N, "Filaggrin mutations in children with severe atopic dermatitis" 127 : 1667-1672, 2007

48 Marenholz I, "Filaggrin loss-of-function mutations predispose to phenotypes involved in the atopic march" 118 : 866-871, 2006

49 O’Regan GM, "Filaggrin in atopic dermatitis" 124 : R2-R6, 2009

50 He R, "Exaggerated IL-17 response to epicutaneous sensitization mediates airway inflammation in the absence of IL-4 and IL-13" 124 : 761-770, 2009

51 Bunikowski R, "Evidence for a disease-promoting effect of Staphylococcus aureus-derived exotoxins in atopic dermatitis" 105 : 814-819, 2000

52 Nomura I, "Evaluation of the staphylococcal exotoxins and their specific IgE in childhood atopic dermatitis" 104 : 441-446, 1999

53 Spergel JM, "Epidemiology of atopic dermatitis and atopic march in children" 30 : 269-280, 2010

54 Spergel JM, "Epicutaneous sensitization with protein antigen induces localized allergic dermatitis and hyperresponsiveness to methacholine after single exposure to aerosolized antigen in mice" 101 : 1614-1622, 1998

55 Akei HS, "Epicutaneous aeroallergen exposure induces systemic TH2 immunity that predisposes to allergic nasal responses" 118 : 62-69, 2006

56 Ohshima Y, "Early sensitization to house dust mite is a major risk factor for subsequent development of bronchial asthma in Japanese infants with atopic dermatitis: results of a 4-year followup study" 89 : 265-270, 2002

57 Strid J, "Disruption of the stratum corneum allows potent epicutaneous immunization with protein antigens resulting in a dominant systemic Th2 response" 34 : 2100-2109, 2004

58 Gustafsson D, "Development of allergies and asthma in infants and young children with atopic dermatitis--a prospective follow-up to 7 years of age" 55 : 240-245, 2000

59 Arikawa J, "Decreased levels of sphingosine, a natural antimicrobial agent, may be associated with vulnerability of the stratum corneum from patients with atopic dermatitis to colonization by Staphylococcus aureus" 119 : 433-439, 2002

60 Howell MD, "Cytokine modulation of atopic dermatitis filaggrin skin expression" 120 : 150-155, 2007

61 Malmberg LP, "Cow’s milk allergy as a predictor of bronchial hyperresponsiveness and airway inflammation at school age" 40 : 1491-1497, 2010

62 Palmer CN, "Common loss-of-function variants of the epidermal barrier protein filaggrin are a major predisposing factor for atopic dermatitis" 38 : 441-446, 2006

63 Saarinen KM, "Clinical course and prognosis of cow’s milk allergy are dependent on milk-specific IgE status" 116 : 869-875, 2005

64 Burgess JA, "Childhood eczema and asthma incidence and persistence: a cohort study from childhood to middle age" 122 : 280-285, 2008

65 Burgess JA, "Childhood allergic rhinitis predicts asthma incidence and persistence to middle age: a longitudinal study" 120 : 863-869, 2007

66 Spergel JM, "Atopic march: link to upper airways" 5 : 17-21, 2005

67 De Benedetto A, "Atopic dermatitis: a disease caused by innate immune defects?" 129 : 14-30, 2009

68 Spergel JM, "Atopic dermatitis and the atopic march" 112 : S118-S127, 2003

69 Guilbert TW, "Atopic characteristics of children with recurrent wheezing at high risk for the development of childhood asthma" 114 : 1282-1287, 2004

70 Martinez FD, "Asthma and wheezing in the first six years of life" The Group Health Medical Associates 332 : 133-138, 1995

71 Leynaert B, "Association between asthma and rhinitis according to atopic sensitization in a population-based study" 113 : 86-93, 2004

72 Liew WK, "Anaphylaxis fatalities and admissions in Australia" 123 : 434-442, 2009

73 Bugiani M, "Allergic rhinitis and asthma comorbidity in a survey of young adults in Italy." 60 : 165-170, 2005

74 Bousquet J, "Allergic Rhinitis and its Impact on Asthma (ARIA) 2008 update (in collaboration with the World Health Organization, GA(2)LEN and AllerGen)" 63 (63): 863-160, 2008

75 Ciprandi G, "Airway function and nasal inflammation in seasonal allergic rhinitis and asthma" 347 : 891-896, 2004

76 Fallon PG, "A homozygous frameshift mutation in the mouse Flg gene facilitates enhanced percutaneous allergen priming" 41 : 602-608, 2009