Educational and psychological measurement and evaluation

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• PREFACE = ⅸ
• PART Ⅰ BASIC CONCEPTS
• 1 MEASUREMENT : ITS NATURE AND FUNCTION = 1
• 1.1 Assessment and Measurement = 1
• 1.2 How much Precision is Needed? = 1
• 1.3 Variables That Are Not Directly Observable = 2
• 1.4 Observation and Quantification = 2
• 1.5 The Paradox of Testing = 3
• 1.6 The Respectful Use of Tests = 5
• 1.7 Measurement and Evaluation in the Educational Process = 6
• 1.8 Subjectivity and Objectivity = 7
• 1.9 Educational Decisions Founded on Evaluation = 7
• 1.10 Essential Knowledge and Skills = 8
• 1.11 The Goals and Functions of Testing = 10
• 1.12 Instructional Functions = 10
• 1.13 Administrative Functions = 12
• 1.14 Research and Evaluation = 14
• 1.15 Guidance Functions = 15
• Chapter Test = 16
• 2 COMMUNICATING INFORMATION : INTERPRETATION OF QUANTITATIVE DATA = 18
• 2.1 Introduction = 18
• 2.2 Frequency Distributions, Central Tendency, and Skewness = 19
• 2.3 Classification and Tabulation = 25
• 2.4 The Ungrouped Frequency Distribution = 25
• 2.5 Central Tendency and Variability = 26
• 2.6 The Median = 27
• 2.7 The Mean = 27
• 2.8 The Mode = 29
• 2.9 Comparisons of the Mean, Median, and Mode = 29
• 2.10 Measures of Variability = 30
• 2.11 The Meaning of Variability = 33
• 2.12 The Range = 34
• 2.13 The Variance and Standard Deviation = 34
• 2.14 Which Measure is Best? = 35
• Chapter Test = 36
• 3 THE MEANING AND APPLICATION OF NORMS = 39
• 3.1 Introduction = 39
• 3.2 Norms Are Not Standards = 42
• 3.3 The Normal Distribution = 42
• 3.4 Many Measures Report Scores That Are Based on the Normal Curve = 51
• 3.5 Standard Scores Are Useful in Describing Performance = 52
• 3.6 z-Scores = 52
• 3.7 The T-Scale = 54
• 3.8 Stanines = 55
• 3.9 Normal Curve Equivalent(NCE)Scores = 57
• 3.10 Norms Provide a Means of Comparison with a Reference Group = 57
• 3.11 A Representative Sample Is Needed for Accurate Norms = 58
• 3.12 Norms Should Be Relevant = 62
• 3.13 Norms Should be Current = 65
• Chapter Test = 68
• 4 TEST VALIDITY = 72
• 4.1 Introduction = 72
• 4.2 Content Validity = 72
• 4.3 Criterion-Related Validity = 77
• 4.4 Correlation and Prediction = 78
• 4.5 The Concept of Correlation = 83
• 4.6 Correlation and Scatterplots = 84
• 4.7 Interpreting Correlation Coefficients = 86
• 4.8 Correlation Versus Causation = 88
• 4.9 Influence of Sample Size, N = 88
• 4.10 Validity Coefficients = 90
• 4.11 Some Examples of Criterion-Related Validity = 91
• 4.12 Another Example of Predictive Validity = 93
• 4.13 How Large Does a Validity Coefficient Need to Be? = 95
• 4.14 Expectancy Tables = 96
• 4.15 Concurrent Validity = 96
• 4.16 Validity Consequences of the Reliability of the Criterion = 96
• 4.17 The Effect of Restricted Variability on Criterion-Related Validity = 97
• 4.18 Construct Validity = 99
• Chapter Test = 102
• 5 TEST RELIABILITY = 108
• 5.1 Introduction = 108
• 5.2 Errors of Measurement and Reliability = 110
• 5.3 Reliability and True Scores = 110
• 5.4 True Scores = 113
• 5.5 The Standard Error of Measurement = 114
• 5.6 The Standard Deviation(σ) and the Standard Error of Measurement($$σ_e$$) = 114
• 5.7 Some Test Theory = 115
• 5.8 Index of Reliability Versus Reliability Coefficient = 117
• 5.9 Regression Toward the Mean = 118
• 5.10 Estimating True Scores from Observed Scores = 118
• 5.11 Test Length, Reliability, and The SpearmanBrown Prophecy Formula = 121
• 5.12 Test Length and $$σ_e$$ = 122
• 5.13 Estimating Reliability : The Test-Retest Method = 122
• 5.14 Parallel-Form Reliability = 125
• 5.15 The Split-Half Method = 125
• 5.16 Reliability via Internal Consistency = 126
• 5.17 Kuder Richardson Formula 20 = 127
• 5.18 Coefficient Alpha = 128
• 5.19 Kuder-Richardson Formula 21 = 128
• 5.20 Speeded Tests = 129
• 5.21 What Is a High Reliability Coefficient? = 130
• Chapter Test = 132
• 6 EXTRANEOUS FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PERFORMANCE ON COGNITIVE TESTS = 137
• 6.1 Introduction = 137
• 6.2 Test Sophistication, Practice, and Coaching = 138
• 6.3 Practice = 139
• 6.4 Coaching = 140
• 6.5 Anxiety and Motivation = 141
• 6.6 Response Styles = 142
• 6.7 The Speed-Versus-Accuracy Set = 143
• 6.8 The Acquiescence Set = 143
• 6.9 The Positional-Preference Set = 144
• 6.10 The Option-Length Set = 144
• 6.11 The Set to Gamble = 144
• 6.12 Corrective Measures for the Gambling Set = 145
• 6.13 Elimination Scoring and Answer-Until-Correct Procedures = 149
• 6.14 Confidence Scoring = 149
• 6.15 Some Conclusions Regarding Response Sets = 150
• 6.16 Mode of Administration = 150
• 6.17 Examiner Effects = 151
• 6.18 Advanced Announcement of Testing = 151
• 6.19 Answer Sheet Format = 151
• 6.20 Scoring = 151
• 6.21 Disturbance = 152
• 6.22 Answer Changing = 152
• 6.23 Cheating = 153
• Chapter Test = 154
• PART Ⅱ THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MEASURES
• 7 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION : ACHIEVEMENT MEASURES = 157
• 7.1 Introduction = 157
• 7.2 Planning the Test = 158
• 7.3 Instructional Objectives = 158
• 7.4 Specificity of Objectives = 159
• 7.5 A Taxonomy of Objectives = 162
• 7.6 Knowledge Level Items = 162
• 7.7 Comprehension and Application Level Items = 164
• 7.8 Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation Level Items = 166
• 7.9 Research on the Taxonomy Hierarchy = 167
• 7.10 Other Item Classifications = 168
• 7.11 Content and Process Objectives = 170
• 7.12 Test Items Are Samples = 172
• 7.13 Diagnostic Testing = 173
• 7.14 The Nature of the Test = 173
• 7.15 Criterion-Referenced Testing = 175
• 7.16 Norm-Referenced Versus Criterion-Referenced Testing = 176
• 7.17 Minimum-Competency Testing = 197
• 7.18 Test Development Plan = 180
• Chapter Test = 183
• 8 CONSTRUCTING AND USING ESSAY TESTS = 184
• 8.1 Introduction and Background = 184
• 8.2 Oral Examinations = 185
• 8.3 Written Tests = 185
• 8.4 Scientific Proficiency Measures : An Early Example = 187
• 8.5 Essay Tests As Measures of Achievement = 188
• 8.6 Limitations of the Essay Test = 189
• 8.7 Reader Unreliability = 190
• 8.8 The Halo Effect = 191
• 8.9 Item-to-Item Carryover Effects = 191
• 8.10 Test-to-Test Carryover Effects = 191
• 8.11 Order Effects = 191
• 8.12 Language Mechanics Effects = 192
• 8.13 Computer Scoring = 193
• 8.14 Essay Test Reliability = 194
• 8.15 Indirect Measures of Writing Ability = 195
• 8.16 The Essay As a Measure of Writing Ability = 197
• 8.17 The Decline in Writing Ability = 197
• 8.18 Essay Tests in College Admissions = 198
• 8.19 First-Draft Versus Final-Draft Skills = 199
• 8.20 Contest Validity of Essay Tests in Other Curricular Areas = 199
• 8.21 Advantages of Essay Tests As Achievement Measures = 200
• 8.22 Improving the Development and Use of Essay Tests = 200
• 8.23 Preparing Students to Take Essay Tests = 204
• 8.24 Constructing Good Essay Tests = 205
• 8.25 Improving the Grading of Essay Tests = 206
• 8.26 The Use of Anchor Points in Scoring = 207
• 8.27 Anonymity = 208
• 8.28 Style = 208
• 8.29 Proper Use of Essay Exercises = 208
• Chapter Test = 209
• 9 CONSTRUCTING OBJECTIVE TESTS = 213
• 9.1 Introduction = 213
• 9.2 Fixed-Response Items = 213
• 9.3 Multiple-Choice Items = 214
• 9.4 Rationale for the Multiple-Choice Item = 214
• 9.5 Ambiguous Versus Trick Questions = 215
• 9.6 Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Ambiguity = 215
• 9.7 Inverse Multiple- Choice Items = 216
• 9.8 Illustrations of Multiple-Choice Items = 217
• 9.9 General Guidelines for Test Development = 226
• 9.10 Special Guidelines for Constructing Multiple-Choice Items = 230
• 9.11 True-False and Two-Option Items = 236
• 9.12 Suggestions for Constructing True-False Items = 237
• 9.13 Matching Exercises = 239
• 9.14 Illustrations of Matching Exercises = 239
• 9.15 Suggestions for Constructing Matching Exercises, = 243
• 9.16 Short-Answer Items = 244
• 9.17 Illustrations of Short-Answer Items = 245
• 9.18 Completion Items = 246
• 9.19 Illustrations of Completion Items = 246
• 9.20 Suggestions for Constructing Short-Answer Items = 247
• 9.21 Cloze Tests = 249
• Chapter Test = 252
• 10 ITEM ANALYSIS FOR CLASSROOM TESTS = 254
• 10.1 Introduction = 254
• 10.2 Information Yielded by an Item Analysis = 255
• 10.3 Procedures for an Item Analysis = 255
• 10.4 The Steps of an Item Analysis = 256
• 10.5 Item Difficulty and Item Discrimination = 257
• 10.6 Item Discrimination and Test Reliability = 259
• 10.7 An Illustrative Analysis = 260
• 10.8 Other Examples = 262
• 10.9 Item Analysis in Large Scale Assessments = 267
• 10.10 Item Analysis with an External Criterion = 267
• Chapter Test = 270
• 11 THE ASSESSMENT OF AFFECTIVE VARIABLES = 273
• 11.1 Introduction = 273
• 11.2 The Affective Taxonomy of Educational Objectives = 274
• 11.3 Cognitive Versus Affective Appraisal = 275
• 11.4 Thurstone Attitude Scales = 276
• 11.5 Likert Scales = 278
• 11.6 Rating Scales = 278
• 11.7 Semantic Differential Scales = 284
• 11.8 Self-Report Inventories = 286
• 11.9 Self-Concept = 288
• 11.10 Q-Sort Technique = 288
• 11.11 Questionnaires = 290
• 11.12 Adjective Checklists = 291
• 11.13 Interviews = 291
• 11.14 Problems of Affective Measurement = 293
• 11.15 The Social-Desirability Response Style = 294
• 11.16 Self-Deception = 296
• 11.17 Semantic Problems = 296
• 11.18 Criterion Inadequacy = 297
• 11.19 Naturalistic Observation and Unobtrusive Measures = 297
• 11.20 Invasion of Privacy = 298
• Chapter Test = 299
• 12 GRADING AND REPORTING = 302
• 12.1 Introduction = 302
• 12.2 Objections to Grades = 303
• 12.3 Testing and Grading = 305
• 12.4 Marks and Criterion-Referenced Measures = 306
• 12.5 Grading on the Curve = 306
• 12.6 Narrative Reports = 307
• 12.7 Parent Conferences = 308
• 12.8 Portfolios = 310
• 12.9 Other Alternatives = 311
• 12.10 The Meaning of Marks = 312
• 12.11 The Criterion of Quality = 312
• 12.12 A Better Proposal? = 314
• 12.13 Assigning Marks and Weighting Components = 315
• 12.14 Homework and Marking = 316
• 12.15 Number of Categories = 316
• 12.16 Suggestions for Improving Marking and Reporting = 317
• Chapter Test = 319
• PART Ⅲ STANDARDIZED MEASURES
• 13 MEASURING SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE = 322
• 13.1 Introduction = 323
• 13.2 The Search for a Valid Measure of Intelligence = 323
• 13.3 Galton and The Study of Human Differences = 324
• 13.4 Binet's Breakthrough = 125
• 13.5 The Stanford-Binet Scale = 325
• 13.6 Performance and Group Tests = 327
• 13.7 Nonverbal Tests = 327
• 13.8 Changing Views of Intelligence Testing = 330
• 13.9 Tests Designed for Admissions Decisions = 330
• 13.10 The Nature of Intelligence = 332
• 13.11 Wechsler Intelligence Tests = 332
• 3.12 The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children(K-ABC) = 333
• 13.13 Other Views of Intelligence = 335
• 13.14 Infant Intelligence Scales = 337
• 13.15 Intelligence Growth Curves = 337
• 13.16 The Reliability of Intelligence Tests = 338
• 13.17 The Ratio IQ = 339
• 13.18 The Deviation IQ = 341
• 13.19 IQ Constancy : Common Variance Versus Score Stability = 342
• 13.20 The Relationship between IQ and Scholastic Achievement = 347
• 13.21 Construct Validity = 349
• 13.22 Intelligence and Occupational Level = 351
• 13.23 Multiple-Aptitude Batteries = 353
• 13.24 Cultural Influence on Test Scores = 354
• 13.25 Assessing Creativity = 358
• 13.26 Using Tests to Identify and Help Gifted Children = 360
• Chapter Test = 365
• 14 STANDARDIZED ACHIEVEMENT TESTS = 368
• 14.1 Introduction = 368
• 14.2 Advantages of Standardized Tests = 368
• 14.3 The Aptitude-Achievement Continuum = 369
• 14.4 Content Validity = 372
• 14.5 Norms on Standardized Achievement Tests = 372
• 14.6 Co-Normed Scholastic Aptitude and Achievement Tests = 373
• 14.7 Item Norms and Class, School, and District Evaluation = 373
• 14.8 School Versus Individual Norms = 375
• 14.9 Interpreting Grade Equivalents = 376
• 14.10 Longitudinal Study of Individual Progress = 380
• 14.11 Diagnostic Use of Test Results = 382
• 14.12 Content Validity of Standardized Achievement Tests : The Sampling of the Content Universe = 384
• 14.13 Teachers' Ratings as Validation Criteria = 385
• 14.14 "Out-of-Level" Testing = 385
• 14.15 Special Problems of Standardized Testing in High School = 386
• 14.16 The National Assessment of Educational Progress = 387
• 14.17 The School Testing Program = 389
• 14.18 Selecting the Appropriate Test(s) = 390
• 14.19 Locating Available Standardized Tests = 391
• 14.20 Test Administration and Scoring = 392
• 14.21 State Assessments = 393
• 14.22 Interpretation of District Results in Relation to Scholastic Aptitude = 396
• 14.23 Achievement Stability = 398
• 14.24 Bias and Achievement Tests = 398
• 14.25 Measuring the Difficulty of Reading Material = 399
• Chapter Test = 403
• 15 STANDARD INTEREST, PERSONALITY, AND SOCIAL MEASURES = 408
• 15.1 Introduction = 408
• 15.2 Vocational Interest Inventories = 409
• 15.3 The Strong Interest Inventory = 409
• 15.4 The Kuder Interest Inventories = 410
• 15.5 Ipsative Versus Normative Scales = 411
• 15.6 Reliability and Validity of Interest Inventories = 411
• 15.7 Fakability = 412
• 15.8 Measured Versus Expressed Interests = 412
• 15.9 Interests, Abilities, and Grades = 413
• 15.10 The Measurement of Personality Variables : Conceptualizing the Human Personality = 414
• 15.11 Traits Assessed by Direct and Naturalistic Observation = 414
• 15.12 Trait Measurement through Self-Report = 415
• 15.13 Special Problems in Personality Measures = 417
• 15.14 Trait Instability = 418
• 15.15 The Social Desirability Response Style = 418
• 15.16 The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory(MMPI) = 418
• 15.17 California Psychological Inventory = 419
• 15.18 The Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory = 420
• 15.19 Evaluation of Self-Report Measures = 421
• 15.20 The Assessment of Motives : Projective Techniques = 421
• 15.21 The Rorschach = 421
• 15.22 The Thematic Apperception Test = 422
• 15.23 Other Projective Techniques = 423
• 15.24 Copying Techniques = 423
• 15.25 Evaluation of Projective Techniques = 424
• 15.26 Measuring School and Institutional Climate = 425
• 15.27 Matrix Sampling = 427
• 15.28 Sociometric Techniques = 427
• 15.29 Sociometry and Peer Ratings = 427
• 15.30 The "Guess Who" Technique = 431
• 15.31 Reliability and Validity of Sociometric Data = 432
• 15.32 Appraising Socioeconomic Status = 434
• 15.33 The Warner-Meeker-Eells Scale = 435
• 15.34 The Hollingshead Index = 436
• Chapter Test = 438
• APPENDIX A RESOURCES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT AND SELECTION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS = 443
• APPENDIX B MAJOR PUBLISHERS OF STANDARDIZED TESTS = 450
• BIBLIOGRAPHY = 451
• AUTHOR INDEX = 476
• SUBJECT INDEX = 481