Placing utilitarianism in nineteenth-century Britain is easier said than done because it provided the theory for reform movements, as well as a frame of thought that made "Western modernization" possible. However, aside from Michel Foucault's highligh...
Placing utilitarianism in nineteenth-century Britain is easier said than done because it provided the theory for reform movements, as well as a frame of thought that made "Western modernization" possible. However, aside from Michel Foucault's highlighting of the panopticon, the historical importance of Jeremy Bentham and utilitarianism has not received sufficient attention. Consequently, the contemporary effects of utilitarianism upon society, as well as the important characteristics of modern society that they reveal, have been largely overlooked. The attributes of human being described in Bentham's theory give rise to an ideology of human beings reduced to isolated monads, which constitute what T. W. Adorno terms a "managed society." In this point of view, Charles Dickens's Hard Times serves as a significant case in point that reveals the relationship between utilitarianism and the monadic man. This study attempts to reevaluate the meaning of Hard Times in the historical context of the rise of utilitarianism in the nineteenth century England.
Considered as an industrial novel or social-problem novel, Hard Times has yet to garner critical consensus regarding its artistic achievement. The main reason may lie in the critical failure to address utilitarianism as an effective ideology in historical context. Two complementary tasks are required for the interpretation of this crux: an analysis of the "contradictions" themselves in accordance to the critical stance of Adorno and a questioning of the relationship between the logic of utilitarianism and representations of utilitarianism in the novel. This study first examines the internal structure of Hard Times and proceeds to explain the significance of critical judgment taken against utilitarianism in the novel. Fredric Jameson's Political Unconscious, which locates antagonism between the representative narratives of social contradiction and their imaginary solutions within literary texts, provides a useful reference for accomplishing these tasks.
The first chapter analyzes the internal structure of Dickens's preceding work Bleak House, which serves to highlight the distinctness of Hard Times. Such social problems as the age-old judicial institutions are represented in Bleak House through the dissolution of families. The conflict is resolved in the end by Esther Summerson who re-constructs a new kind of family which cares for and reintegrates alienated individuals. In opposition to the critical tradition disparaging Esther as an agent of the Bourgeois family, this study argues that her newly constructed family could be considered as a "family-community" opened to the others. Thus, Dickens maintains a faith in the possibility that this 'family-community' could offer a solution, however marginal, to the social problems in Bleak House.
The second chapter proves that Hard Times contrasts with Bleak House in its internal narrative structure. Unlike the previous novel, the characteristics of a "family-community" found in Sissy Jupe and the circus belie their inability to function as an alternative. They intervene and resolve the conflict, but fail to from a nucleus of "family-community." Indeed, this contradictory situation which dissatisfies the readers provides the key for a reflection on the essential characteristics of utilitarianism: the monadic man isolated from one another.
Chapter three assesses the value of the novel's critique on Bentham's theoretical system. The rise of the monadic men found in the novel, along with the change in historical positions of the classes, fatally damages the "family-community" as a solution to contemporary social problems. It is significant that Hard Times indicates this connection between the monadic man and utilitarianism. For although Bentham did not theorize upon the monadic man, this conclusion is inevitably implied in and caused by his logic. This chapter demonstrates through a critical reading of An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation that the monadic man is embedded in the theoretic system of utilitarianism.
One of the virtues of Hard Times is that it criticizes utilitarianism as a main characteristic of modern society. The novel foresees Adorno and Max Weber's historical view which deems western modernization as a rationalizing and dehumanizing process. In this point of view, Hard Times allows for a reflection on the monadic man as one of essential mechanisms in modern society while also reevaluating the historical meaning of utilitarianism as its theoretical ground.