Mastering modern psychological testing : theory and methods

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• 1 Introduction to Psychological Assessment = 1
• 1.1 Brief History of Testing = 6
• 1.1.1 Earliest Testing : Circa 2200 BC = 6
• 1.1.2 Eighteenth-and Nineteenth-Century Testing = 6
• 1.1.3 Brass Instruments Era = 7
• 1.1.4 Twentieth-Century Testing = 8
• 1.1.5 Twenty-First-Century Testing = 10
• 1.2 The Language of Assessment = 11
• 1.2.1 Tests = 11
• 1.2.2 Standardized Tests = 11
• 1.2.3 Measurement = 11
• 1.2.4 Assessment = 12
• 1.2.5 Are Tests, Measurement, and Assessment Interchangeable Terms? = 13
• 1.2.6 Other Important Terms = 13
• 1.3 Types of Tests = 14
• 1.3.1 Maximum Performance Tests = 15
• 1.3.2 Typical Response Tests = 17
• 1.4 Types of Scores = 19
• 1.5 Assumptions of Psychological Assessment = 21
• 1.5.1 Assumption #1 : Psychological Constructs Exist = 21
• 1.5.2 Assumption #2 : Psychological Constructs Can Be Measured = 21
• 1.5.3 Assumption #3 : Although We Can Measure Constructs, Our Measurement Is Not Perfect = 21
• 1.5.4 Assumption #4 : There Are Different Ways to Measure Any Given Construct = 22
• 1.5.5 Assumption #5 : All Assessment Procedures Have Strengths and Limitations = 22
• 1.5.6 Assumption #6 : Multiple Sources of Information Should Be Part of the Assessment Process = 22
• 1.5.7 Assumption #7 : Performance on Tests Can Be Generalized to Non-Test Behaviors = 23
• 1.5.8 Assumption #8 : Assessment Can Provide Information that Helps Psychologists Make Better Professional Decisions = 23
• 1.5.9 Assumption #9 : Assessments Can Be Conducted in a Fair Manner = 23
• 1.5.10 Assumption #10: Testing and Assessment Can Beneft Individuals and Society as a Whole = 24
• 1.6 Why Use Tests? = 26
• 1.7 Common Applications of Psychological Assessments = 28
• 1.7.1 Diagnosis = 28
• 1.7.2 Treatment Planning and Treatment Effectiveness = 30
• 1.7.3 Selection, Placement, and Classifcation = 30
• 1.7.4 Self-Understanding = 31
• 1.7.5 Evaluation = 31
• 1.7.6 Licensing = 31
• 1.7.7 Program Evaluation = 31
• 1.7.8 Scientifc Method = 32
• 1.8 Common Criticisms of Testing and Assessment = 32
• 1.9 Participants in the Assessment Process = 34
• 1.9.1 People Who Develop Tests = 34
• 1.9.2 People Who Use Tests = 37
• 1.9.3 People Who Take Tests = 38
• 1.9.4 Other People Involved in Assessment Process = 39
• 1.10 Psychological Assessment in the Twenty-First Century = 39
• 1.10.1 Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT) = 39
• 1.10.2 Other Technological Applications Used in Assessment = 39
• 1.10.3 "Authentic" Assessments = 40
• 1.10.4 Health-Care Delivery Systems = 41
• 1.10.5 High-Stakes Assessment = 41
• 1.11 Summary = 43
• References = 45
• 2 The Basic Statistics of Measurement = 49
• 2.1 Scales of Measurement = 51
• 2.1.1 What Is Measurement? = 51
• 2.1.2 Nominal Scales = 51
• 2.1.3 Ordinal Scales = 52
• 2.1.4 Interval Scales = 52
• 2.1.5 Ratio Scales = 54
• 2.2 The Description of Test Scores = 56
• 2.2.1 Distributions = 56
• 2.2.2 Measures of Central Tendency = 60
• 2.2.3 Measures of Variability = 66
• 2.2.4 The Normal Distribution = 70
• 2.3 Correlation Coeffcients = 73
• 2.3.1 Scatterplots = 76
• 2.3.2 Types of Correlation Coeffcients = 78
• 2.3.3 Factors that Affect Correlation Coeffcients = 80
• 2.3.4 Correlation Versus Causation = 81
• 2.4 Linear Regression = 83
• 2.4.1 Standard Error of Estimate = 84
• 2.5 Summary = 86
• Practice Items = 88
• References = 89
• 3 The Meaning of Test Scores = 91
• 3.1 Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Score Interpretations = 93
• 3.1.1 Norm-Referenced Interpretations = 94
• 3.1.2 Criterion-Referenced Interpretations = 111
• 3.1.3 Norm-Referenced, Criterion-Referenced, or Both? = 114
• 3.2 Scores Based on Item Response Theory = 115
• 3.3 So What Scores Should We Use : Norm-Referenced, Criterion-Referenced, or Rasch-Based Scores? = 117
• 3.4 Qualitative Description of Test Scores = 119
• 3.5 Reporting Information on Normative Samples and Test Scores = 120
• 3.6 Summary = 125
• Practice Items = 130
• References = 130
• 4 Reliability = 133
• 4.1 Classical Test Theory and Measurement Error = 135
• 4.2 Sources of Measurement Error = 138
• 4.2.1 Content Sampling Error = 138
• 4.2.2 Time Sampling Error = 139
• 4.2.3 Other Sources of Error = 140
• 4.3 Reliability Coeffcients = 140
• 4.3.1 Test-Retest Reliability = 142
• 4.3.2 Alternate-Form Reliability = 144
• 4.3.3 Internal-Consistency Reliability = 145
• 4.3.4 Inter-Rater Reliability = 148
• 4.3.5 Reliability Estimates Are Not Independent = 151
• 4.3.6 Reliability of Composite Scores = 152
• 4.3.7 Reliability of Difference Scores = 152
• 4.3.8 Selecting a Reliability Coeffcient = 155
• 4.3.9 Evaluating Reliability Coeffcients = 156
• 4.3.10 How to Improve Reliability = 158
• 4.3.11 Special Problems in Estimating Reliability = 160
• 4.4 The Standard Error of Measurement = 164
• 4.4.1 Evaluating the Standard Error of Measurement = 165
• 4.4.2 Calculating Confdence Intervals = 167
• 4.5 Modern Test Theories = 169
• 4.5.1 Generalizability Theory = 169
• 4.5.2 Item Response Theory = 171
• 4.6 Reporting Reliability Information = 172
• 4.6.1 How Test Manuals Report Reliability Information : The Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales, Second Edition (RIAS-2) = 173
• 4.7 Reliability : Practical Strategies for Educators = 177
• 4.8 Summary = 179
• Practice Items = 181
• References = 182
• 5 Validity = 185
• 5.1 Threats to Validity = 188
• 5.1.1 Examinee Characteristics = 189
• 5.1.2 Test Administration and Scoring Procedures = 189
• 5.1.3 Instruction and Coaching = 189
• 5.2 Reliability and Validity = 190
• 5.3 "Types of Validity" Versus "Types of Validity Evidence" = 191
• 5.4 Sources of Validity Evidence = 193
• 5.4.1 Evidence Based on Test Content = 193
• 5.4.2 Evidence Based on Response Processes = 197
• 5.4.3 Evidence Based on Internal Structure = 198
• 5.4.4 Evidence Based on Relations to Other Variables = 203
• 5.4.5 Evidence Based on Consequences of Testing = 213
• 5.5 Integrating Evidence of Validity = 214
• 5.6 How Test Manuals Report Validity Evidence : The Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales, Second Edition (RIAS–2) = 216
• 5.7 Summary = 218
• References = 220
• 6 Item Development = 223
• 6.1 Item Formats = 225
• 6.2 General Item Writing Guidelines = 230
• 6.3 Maximum-Performance Tests = 235
• 6.3.1 Multiple-Choice Items = 236
• 6.3.2 True–False Items = 241
• 6.3.3 Matching Items = 244
• 6.3.4 Essay Items = 246
• 6.3.5 Short-Answer Items = 248
• 6.4 Typical-Response Tests = 250
• 6.4.1 Typical-Response Item Formats = 250
• 6.4.2 Typical-Response Item Guidelines = 258
• 6.5 Summary = 259
• References = 261
• 7 Item Analysis : Methods for Fitting the Right Items to the Right Test = 263
• 7.1 Item Diffculty Index (or Item Diffculty Level) = 265
• 7.1.1 Special Assessment Situations and Item Diffculty = 267
• 7.2 Item Discrimination = 269
• 7.2.1 Discrimination Index = 269
• 7.2.2 Item Discrimination on Mastery Tests = 272
• 7.2.3 Item Discrimination on Typical-Response Tests = 274
• 7.2.4 Diffculty and Discrimination on Speed Tests = 275
• 7.2.5 Examples of Item Diffculty and Discrimination Indices = 276
• 7.3 Distracter Analysis = 277
• 7.3.1 How Distracters Infuence Item Diffculty and Discrimination = 278
• 7.4 Qualitative Item Analysis = 279
• 7.5 Item Characteristic Curves and Item Response Theory = 280
• 7.5.1 Item Characteristic Curves = 281
• 7.5.2 IRT Models = 284
• 7.5.3 Invariance of Item Parameters = 284
• 7.5.4 Special Applications of IRT = 286
• 7.6 Summary = 287
• References = 289
• 8 Achievement Tests in the Era of High-Stakes Assessment = 291
• 8.1 The Impetus for Achievement Tests = 294
• 8.2 Group-Administered Achievement Tests = 299
• 8.2.1 Commercial Standardized Achievement Test = 301
• 8.2.2 State-Developed Achievement Tests = 305
• 8.2.3 Best Practices in Preparing Students for Standardized Assessment = 312
• 8.3 Individual Achievement Tests = 317
• 8.3.1 Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Third Edition (WIAT-III) = 317
• 8.3.2 Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (WJ-IV ACH) = 318
• 8.3.3 Wide Range Achievement Test Fifth Edition (WRAT5) = 319
• 8.3.4 Individual Achievement Tests That Focus on Specifc Skills = 319
• 8.4 Selecting an Achievement Battery = 320
• 8.5 Teacher-Constructed Achievement Tests and Student Evaluation = 320
• 8.6 Achievement Tests : Not Only in the Public Schools! = 325
• 8.6.1 Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP) = 325
• 8.6.2 United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) = 326
• 8.7 Summary = 327
• References = 329
• 9 Assessment of Intelligence = 331
• 9.1 A Brief History of Intelligence Tests = 336
• 9.2 The Use of Aptitude and Intelligence Tests in School Settings = 342
• 9.2.1 Aptitude-Achievement Discrepancies = 343
• 9.2.2 A New Assessment Strategy for Specifc Learning Disabilities: Response to Intervention (RTI) = 345
• 9.2.3 Diagnosing Intellectual Disability = 347
• 9.3 The Use of Aptitude and Intelligence Tests in Clinical Settings = 347
• 9.4 Major Aptitude／Intelligence Tests = 348
• 9.4.1 Group Aptitude／Intelligence Tests = 348
• 9.4.2 Individual Aptitude／Intelligence Tests = 353
• 9.5 Selecting Aptitude／Intelligence Tests = 364
• 9.6 Understanding the Report of an Intellectual Assessment = 365
• 9.7 Summary = 378
• References = 380
• 10 Assessment of Personality = 383
• 10.1 Assessing Personality = 385
• 10.1.1 Response Sets and Dissimulation = 391
• 10.1.2 Factors Affecting Reliability and Validity = 394
• 10.2 Objective Personality Tests : An Overview = 396
• 10.2.1 Content/Rational Approach = 397
• 10.2.2 Empirical Criterion Keying = 398
• 10.2.3 Factor Analysis = 408
• 10.2.4 Theoretical Approach = 411
• 10.3 Assessment of Personality in Children and Adolescents = 414
• 10.3.1 Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third Edition : Self-Report of Personality (SRP) = 414
• 10.3.2 Single-Domain Self-Report Measures = 417
• 10.4 Projective Personality Tests : An Overview = 418
• 10.4.1 Projective Drawings = 419
• 10.4.2 Sentence Completion Tests = 420
• 10.4.3 Apperception Tests = 420
• 10.4.4 Inkblot Techniques = 421
• 10.5 Summary = 422
• References = 425
• 11 Behavioral Assessment = 427
• 11.1 Assessing Behavior = 430
• 11.2 Response Sets = 431
• 11.3 Assessment of Behavior in the Schools = 433
• 11.4 Behavioral Interviewing = 435
• 11.5 Behavior Rating Scales = 436
• 11.5.1 Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third Edition : Teacher Rating Scales and Parent Rating Scales (TRSs and PRSs) = 438
• 11.5.2 Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment : Child Behavior Checklist and Teacher Report Form (CBCL and TRF) = 444
• 11.5.3 Single-Domain or Syndrome-Specifc Rating Scales = 446
• 11.5.4 Adaptive Behavior Scales = 447
• 11.5.5 Adult Behavior Rating Scales = 448
• 11.6 Direct Observation = 450
• 11.7 Continuous Performance Tests = 454
• 11.8 Psychophysiological Assessments = 455
• 11.9 Summary = 456
• References = 458
• 12 Employment and Vocational Testing = 461
• 12.1 Historical View of I／O Psychology = 463
• 12.2 Personnel Selection Approaches = 466
• 12.2.1 Cognitive Ability = 466
• 12.2.2 Interviews = 469
• 12.2.3 Integrity = 474
• 12.2.4 Assessment Centers = 476
• 12.2.5 Work Sample Tests = 477
• 12.2.6 Biodata = 478
• 12.3 Choosing a Personnel Selection Approach = 479
• 12.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Approaches = 479
• 12.3.2 Applicant Reactions = 481
• 12.3.3 Job Analysis = 482
• 12.4 Evaluating Job Performance = 483
• 12.4.1 Approaches to Performance Ratings = 484
• 12.4.2 Comparison of Rating Approaches = 485
• 12.4.3 Types of Rating Methods = 486
• 12.4.4 Sources of Error = 487
• 12.5 Legal Issues = 488
• 12.5.1 The Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978) = 489
• 12.5.2 Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures, Fifth Edition (2018) = 490
• 12.6 Career Assessment = 491
• 12.6.1 Strong Interest Inventory, Revised Edition = 491
• 12.6.2 Career Decision-Making System, Revised = 492
• 12.6.3 Self-Directed Search = 493
• 12.7 Summary = 493
• References = 494
• 13 Neuropsychological Testing = 499
• 13.1 Components of a Neuropsychological Evaluation = 502
• 13.2 Neuropsychological Assessment Approaches and Instruments = 506
• 13.2.1 The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery (HRNB) = 507
• 13.2.2 The Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery (LNNB) for Adults = 509
• 13.2.3 The Boston Process Approach = 510
• 13.3 Assessment of Memory Functions = 512
• 13.3.1 TOMAL-2 : An Example of a Contemporary Comprehensive Memory Assessment = 515
• 13.4 The Process of Neuropsychological Assessment = 518
• 13.4.1 Referral = 519
• 13.4.2 Review of Records = 522
• 13.4.3 Clinical Interview = 522
• 13.4.4 Test Selection = 524
• 13.4.5 Test Conditions = 528
• 13.5 Measurement of Defcits and Strengths = 531
• 13.5.1 Normative Approach = 531
• 13.5.2 Defcit Measurement Approach = 532
• 13.5.3 Premorbid Ability = 534
• 13.5.4 Pattern Analysis = 536
• 13.5.5 Pathognomonic Signs = 536
• 13.6 Summary = 537
• References = 538
• 14 Forensic Applications of Psychological Assessment = 543
• 14.1 What Is Forensic Psychology? = 545
• 14.2 Expert Witnesses and Expert Testimony = 547
• 14.3 Clinical Assessment Versus Forensic Assessment = 548
• 14.4 Applications in Criminal Proceedings = 550
• 14.4.1 Not Guilty by Reason of Insanity : The NGRI Defense = 551
• 14.4.2 Competency to Stand Trial = 552
• 14.4.3 Transfer of a Juvenile to Adult Criminal Court = 554
• 14.4.4 Mitigation in Sentencing = 554
• 14.4.5 The Special Case of Intellectual Disability in Capital Sentencing = 556
• 14.4.6 Competency to Be Executed = 558
• 14.5 Applications in Civil Proceedings = 559
• 14.5.1 Personal Injury Litigation = 559
• 14.5.2 Divorce and Child Custody = 560
• 14.5.3 Determining Common Civil Competencies = 563
• 14.5.4 Other Civil Matters = 564
• 14.6 Third Party Observers in Forensic Psychological Testing = 564
• 14.7 Detection of Malingering and Other Forms of Dissimulation = 567
• 14.8 The Admissibility of Testimony Based on Psychological Testing Results = 568
• 14.9 Summary = 570
• References = 571
• 15 The Problem of Bias in Psychological Assessment = 573
• 15.1 What Do We Mean by Bias? = 577
• 15.2 Past and Present Concerns : A Brief Look = 578
• 15.3 The Controversy Over Bias in Testing : Its Origin, What It Is, and What It Is Not = 579
• 15.3.1 Explaining Mean Group Differences = 582
• 15.3.2 Test Bias and Etiology = 583
• 15.3.3 Test Bias and Fairness = 583
• 15.3.4 Test Bias and Offensiveness = 585
• 15.3.5 Test Bias and Inappropriate Test Administration and Use = 585
• 15.3.6 Bias and Extraneous Factors = 586
• 15.4 Cultural Bias and the Nature of Psychological Testing = 586
• 15.5 Objections to the Use of Educational and Psychological Tests with Minority Students = 587
• 15.5.1 Inappropriate Content = 588
• 15.5.2 Inappropriate Standardization Samples = 588
• 15.5.3 Examiner and Language Bias = 588
• 15.5.4 Inequitable Social Consequences = 589
• 15.5.5 Measurement of Different Constructs = 589
• 15.5.6 Differential Predictive Validity = 589
• 15.5.7 Qualitatively Distinct Aptitude and Personality = 589
• 15.6 The Problem of Defnition in Test Bias Research : Differential Validity = 592
• 15.7 Cultural Loading, Cultural Bias, and Culture-Free Tests = 594
• 15.8 Inappropriate Indicators of Bias : Mean Differences and Equivalent Distributions = 595
• 15.9 Bias in Test Content = 596
• 15.9.1 How Test Publishers Commonly Identify Biased Items = 598
• 15.10 Bias in Other Internal Features of Tests = 601
• 15.10.1 How Test Publishers Commonly Identify Bias in Construct Measurement = 603
• 15.11 Bias in Prediction and in Relation to Variables External to the Test = 604
• 15.11.1 How Test Publishers Commonly Identify Bias in Prediction = 609
• 15.12 Summary = 609
• References = 610
• 16 Assessment Accommodations = 615
• 16.1 Accommodations Versus Modifcations = 619
• 16.2 The Rationale for Assessment Accommodations = 619
• 16.3 When Are Accommodations Not Appropriate or Necessary? = 620
• 16.4 Strategies for Accommodations = 621
• 16.4.1 Modifcations of Presentation Format = 622
• 16.4.2 Modifcations of Response Format = 623
• 16.4.3 Modifcations of Timing = 623
• 16.4.4 Modifcations of Setting = 624
• 16.4.5 Adaptive Devices and Supports = 625
• 16.4.6 Using Only Portions of a Test = 625
• 16.4.7 Using Alternate Assessments = 626
• 16.5 Determining What Accommodations to Provide = 627
• 16.6 Assessment of English Language Learners (ELLs) = 632
• 16.7 Reporting Results of Modifed Assessments = 634
• 16.8 Summary = 637
• References = 639
• 17 Best Practices: Legal and Ethical Issues = 641
• 17.1 Guidelines for Developing Assessments = 643
• 17.2 Guidelines for Selecting Published Assessments = 645
• 17.3 Guidelines for Administering Assessments = 650
• 17.4 Guidelines for Scoring Assessments = 652
• 17.5 Guidelines for Interpreting Assessment Results, Making Clinical Decisions, and Reporting Results = 654
• 17.6 Responsibilities of Test Takers = 658
• 17.7 Summary and Top 10 Assessment-Related Behaviors to Avoid = 661
• References = 661
• 18 How to Develop a Psychological Test: A Practical Approach = 663
• 18.1 Phase I : Test Conceptualization = 665
• 18.1.1 Conduct a Literature Review and Develop a Statement of Need for the Test = 665
• 18.1.2 Describe the Proposed Uses and Interpretations of Results From the Test = 667
• 18.1.3 Determine Who Will Use the Test and Why = 668
• 18.1.4 Develop Conceptual and Operational Defnitions of Constructs You Intend to Measure = 669
• 18.1.5 Determine Whether Measures of Dissimulation Are Needed and If So, What Kind = 670
• 18.2 Phase II : Specifcation of Test Structure and Format = 675
• 18.2.1 Designate the Age Range Appropriate for the Measure = 675
• 18.2.2 Determine and Describe the Testing Format = 676
• 18.2.3 Describe the Structure of the Test = 676
• 18.2.4 Develop a Table of Specifcations (TOS) = 676
• 18.2.5 Determine and Describe the Item Formats and Write Instructions for Administration and Scoring = 680
• 18.2.6 Develop an Explanation of Methods for Item Development, Tryout, and Final Item Selection = 682
• 18.3 Phase III : Planning Standardization and Psychometric Studies = 684
• 18.3.1 Specify a Sampling Plan for Standardization = 684
• 18.3.2 Determine Your Choice of Scaling Methods and Rationale = 685
• 18.3.3 Briefy Outline the Reliability Studies to Be Performed and Their Rationale = 688
• 18.3.4 Briefy Outline the Validity Studies to Be Performed and Their Rationale = 688
• 18.3.5 Determine If There Are Any Special Studies That May Be Needed for Development of This Test or to Support Proposed Interpretations of Performance = 689
• 18.3.6 List the Components of the Test = 690
• 18.4 Phase 4 : Plan Implementation = 690
• 18.4.1 Reevaluate the Test Content and Structure = 690
• 18.4.2 Prepare the Test Manual = 690
• 18.4.3 Submit a Test Proposal = 691
• 18.5 Summary = 691
• References = 692
• Appendix : Calculation (Table A.1) = 693
• Index = 701