Escalating evidences suggest that oxidative stress is involved in methamphetamine (MA)-induced neurotoxicity, and that peroxides including H2O2 play a crucial role in this toxicity. Enzymatic antioxidants, such as catalase, and glutathione peroxidase ...
Escalating evidences suggest that oxidative stress is involved in methamphetamine (MA)-induced neurotoxicity, and that peroxides including H2O2 play a crucial role in this toxicity. Enzymatic antioxidants, such as catalase, and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), provide a first line of defense against H2O2. A selenium-dependent GPx (GPx-1) out of GPx isozymes is considered as a major H2O2 scavenger in the brain.
In the present study, it was asked whether GPx-1 gene affects MA-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity, and whether protein kinase C (PKC) affects this toxicity, since it was suggested that PKC might contribute to dopaminergic toxicity. Treatment with MA (8.0 mg/kg, i.p. x 4) resulted in the decrease in striatal GPx-1-like immunoreactivity in the GPx-1 (+/+) mice. MA treatment produced hyperthermia, dopaminergic toxicity [as measured by dopamine turnover rate, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) activity, TH-like immunoreactivity and TH phosphorylation at serine residue 31, 40], oxidative stress [as measured by protein carbonyl and lipid peroxidation], neuroinflammation [as measured by cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)-, interleukin-6 (IL-6)-, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-, and interferon-γ (IFN-γ)-like immunoreactivity], microgliosis [as labeled by F4/80- or ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule-1 (Iba-1)-like immunoreactivity], and reduction of neurotrophic factors [as measured by brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)- and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF)-like immunoreactivity]. Intrastriatal microinjection with chelerythrine (a pan-inhibitor of PKC) or rottlerin (an inhibitor of PKCδ), but not with Go6976 (a co-inhibitor of PKCα and PKCβ), hispidine (an inhibitor of PKCβ) or PKCζ pseudosubstrate (an inhibitor of PKCζ), attenuated MA-induced hyperthermia and behavioral impairments (as measured by locomotor activity and rota-rod performance). Consistently, treatment with MA significantly increased striatal expressions of PKCδ and cleaved PKCδ, whereas there was no significant change in the expressions of other PKC isozymes. These findings were more pronounced in GPx1 (-/-) mice than GPx1 (+/+) mice. Intrastriatal microinjection with chelerythrine or rottlerin significantly attenuated MA-induced increases in the PKCδ and cleaved PKCδ.
As shown in case of chelerythrine or rottlerin, GPx-mimics, such as ebselen and acetylsalicylic acid maltol ester (AME), significantly attenuated MA-induced hyperthermia, behavioural impairments, dopaminergic toxicity, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, microgliosis, increased striatal expressions of PKCδ and cleaved PKCδ, and decreased expressions of neurotrophic factors. In addition, treatment with ebselen, AME or rottlerin significantly prevented MA-induced decreases in mouse double minute (MDM)-2 phosphorylation as well as increases in p53 expression in the striatum of the mice. The protective effects of ebselen, AME or rottlerin were less pronounced in GPx-1 (-/-) mice than GPx-1 (+/+) mice. GPx-1-like immunoreactivity was restored by intrastriatal GPx-1 gene transfection with GPx1 gene-encoded adenovirus vector in GPx1 (-/-) mice. Intrastriatal GPx-1-transfected GPx1 (-/-) mice were less susceptible to MA-induced hyperthermia, behavioural impairment, decrease in TH-like immunoreactivity, and increase in PKCδ expression as compared with those of control vector-transfected GPx1 (-/-) mice.
In addition, MA-induced hyperthermia, behavioural impairment, increase in dopamine turnover rate, decrease in GPx-1 expression were less pronounced in PKCδ (-/-) mice than PKCδ (+/+) mice.
The results suggest that GPx1 gene is an essential factor for blocking MA-induced dopaminergic toxicity, and that PKCδ gene is involved in this pathogenesis. GPx-mimic compounds attenuate MA neurotoxicity via inhibiting PKCδ expression, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation.