Sex differences of 40-, 52-, and 64-month-old children dased on pleasure-displeasure and arousal-sleep dimensions

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

This paper examines children’s emotional development with respect to sex in facial expression discrimination, based on the two-dimensional model of emotion. The study group consisted of 92 children, aged 40, 52, and 64 months. The participants were presented with 20 photos, which displayed 10 strong or weak facial expressions, pre-rated by adults on a nine-point scale in two dimensions. The children were required to identify such emotions. The experimental findings showed that the emotions of fear and sadness showed significant interactions between sex and age factors in the two-dimensional model, according to the respective ANOVA model (P < .05). Fear showed significant interactions between sex and age factors in both dimensions. Sadness showed significant interactions between sex and age in the arousal-sleep dimension. The research results show that females aged 40 - 64 months showed stronger arousal levels than males in recognizing the fear and sadness emotions, and sex differences in recognizing emotions declined up to adulthood. This study suggests that the two-dimensional model of emotion can reveal the potentially small effects of sex on children’s facial expression discrimination, and is a useful tool for representing sex differences between groups with respect to emotional discrimination for preschoolers.

참고문헌 (Reference)

1 Fellman, E. S, "children’s and adults’ recognition of spontaneous and posed emotional expressions in young infant" 19 : 405-413, 1983

2 Harris, P. L., "Young children’s theory of mind and emotion" 3 : 379-400, 1989

3 Ekman, P, "Universal and cultural difference in facial expressions of emotions, in Nebraska symposium on motivation" University of Nebraska Press 1972

4 Peng, M, "Training young children to acknowledge mixed emotions" 6 : 387-401, 1992

5 Cutting, A., "Theory of mind, emotion understanding, language, and family background: Individual differences and interrelations" 70 : 853-865, 1999

6 Kim, Y.A, "The study of di-mension of internal states through word analysis about emotion" 1 : 145-152, 1998

7 Daly, E. M, "The relationship between mother’s encoding and their children’s decoding of facial expressions of emotion" 26 : 25-33, 1980

8 Harrigan,J.A, "The effects of task order on children’s identification of facial expressions" 8 (8): 157-169, 1984

9 Borke,H, "The development of empathy in Chinese and American Children between three and six years of age: A cross-cultural study" 9 : 102-108, 1973

10 Kim, J.K, "Stability of two-dimension structure of emotion" 2 (2): 43-52, 1999

11 Gitter, A, "Race and sex differences in the child’s perception of emotion" 42 : 2071-2075, 1971

12 Barrett, K. C., "Perspectives on emotional development II: A functionalist approach to emotions, in Handbook of infant development" Wiley 1987

13 Chaplin, T. M, "Parental socialization of emotion expression: Gender differences and relations to child adjustment" 5 (5): 80-88, 2005

14 Izard, C. E., "Motivational organizational and regulatory functions of discrete emotions, in Handbook of emotions (2nd ed.)" Gilford Press 2000

15 Bradmetz, J, "Is little red riding hood afraid of her grandmother? Cognitive vs. emotional response to a false belief" 17 : 501-514, 1999

16 Hall,J.A, "Gender effects in decoding nonverbal cues" 85 : 845-857, 1978

17 Brody,L, "Gender differences in emotional development: A review of theories and research" 53 : 102-149, 1985

18 Bullock, M, "Further evidence on preschoolers' interpretation of facial expressions" 8 (8): 15-38, 1985

19 Bahn, S. B, "Facial expression database for mapping facial expression onto internal state" 215-219, 1997

20 Williams, L. M, "Explicit identification and implicit recognition of facial emotions: l. Age effects in males and females across 10 decades" 31 (31): 257-277, 2009

21 Russell,J.A, "Evidence of convergent validity on the dimension of affect" 30 : 1152-1168, 1978

22 Bachevalier, J, "Effects of selective neonatal temporal lesions on visual recognition memory in rhesus monkeys" 14 : 2128-2139, 1994

23 Russell, J. A, "Dimension underlying children's emotion con-cepts" Developmental Psychology 795-804, 1983

24 Brown, J. R, "Continuities in emotion understanding from three to six years" 67 : 789-802, 1996

25 Overman, W. H, "Cognitive gender differences in very young children parallel biologically based cognitive differences in monkeys" 110 : 673-684, 1996

26 Camras, L. A, "Children’s understanding of emotional facial expressions and verbal labels" 9 : 84-94, 1985

27 Gross, A. L, "Children’s understanding of emotion from facial expressions and situations: A review" 11 : 368-398, 1991

28 Williams, L. M, "BOLD, sweat and fears: Functional BOLD, sweat and fears: fMRI and skin conductance distinguish facial fear signals" 19 : 49-52, 2005

29 Bachevalier, J, "Age and sex differences in the effects of selective temporal lobe lesions on the formation of visual discrimination habits in rhesus monkeys (Macacamulatta)" 104 : 885-889, 1990

30 Russell, J. A, "A cross-cultural study of a circumplex model of affect" 57 : 848-856, 1989

31 Butler,S.A, "A critical review of sex differences in emotional decoding in children" Emory University 1991