Understanding the gender gap : an economic history of American women

목차 (Table of Contents)

• CONTENTS
• 1. Women's Experience in the American Economy = 3
• 2. The Evolution of the Female Labor Force = 10
• The Measure of Market Work = 13
• Labor Force Participation of Married Women Since 1890 = 16
• Cohorts of White Married Women = 17
• Cohorts Versus Cross Sections = 21
• Implications of Cohort Change = 23
• Cohorts of Nonwhite Married Women = 27
• Life-Cycle Labor Force Participation and Work Experience = 28
• Direct Measures of Life-Cycle Work = 30
• Work Experience, 1930 to 1950 = 37
• Economic Development and the Life Cycle of Work = 42
• Corrections to the c. 1890 Data = 43
• Participation Rates Before 1890: Married and Adult Women = 46
• Participation Rates Before 1890: Single Women = 50
• Single Women in the Labor Force, 1890 to 1930 = 54
• Summary: The Work of Women, 1790 to 1988 = 55
• 3. The Gender Gap in Earnings and Occupations = 58
• The Gender Gap in Earnings over the Long Run, 1815 to 1987 = 59
• The Ratio of Female to Male Full-time Earnings = 59
• Manufacturing and Agriculture, 1815 to 1970 = 63
• All Workers, 1890 to 1987 = 68
• Occupational Segregation and the Male-Female Wage Gap = 71
• Sources of Change in the Ratio of Male to Female Earnings = 73
• The Gender Gap in Occupations = 74
• Occupational Distributions Among White and Black Women = 74
• Occupational Segregation by Sex, 1900 to 1980 = 75
• Occupational Segregation in Manufacturing, 1900 = 77
• Implications of Occupational Segregation = 81
• Summary: Earnings and Occupations = 82
• 4. The Emergence of "Wage Discrimination" = 83
• A Measure of "Wage Discrimination" = 84
• "Wage Discrimination" in Recent Studies = 87
• Discrimination and "Wage Discrimination" = 88
• Explaining Differences Between Male and Female Earnings = 90
• Manufacturing, 1888 to 1907 = 91
• Female Manufacturing Workers = 93
• Earnings of Manufacturing Workers = 97
• "Wage Discrimination" in Manufacturing = 101
• Clerical Sector, 1940 = 105
• Clerical Work and Clerical Workers = 106
• Earnings of Clerical Workers = 107
• "Wage Discrimination" in Clerical Work = 110
• The Origins of "Wage Discrimination" = 114
• Summary: "Wage Discrimination" = 117
• 5. The Changing Economic Role of Married Women = 119
• Explaining Long-term Trends in Married Women's Labor Force Participation = 122
• Supply Versus Demand = 122
• Labor Supply: Income, Wage, and Substitution Effects = 124
• A General Model of the Labor Market for Married Women = 126
• Estimates of Income, Wage, and Substitution Effects = 131
• Applying the General Model, 1890 to 1980 = 136
• A Cohort Approach to Change in Married Women's Labor Force Participation = 138
• Cohort Differences in Fertility = 139
• Cohort Differences in Education = 143
• Occupational and Educational Change = 143
• A Cross-Section, Time-Series Model = 149
• Expectations and Cohort Labor Force Participation = 154
• Summary: Married Women in the Labor Force = 157
• 6. Why Did Change Take So Long? = 159
• Marriage Bars = 160
• Extent of the Marriage Bar = 161
• Firm-Level Evidence, 1931 and 1940 = 166
• Evidence from Local School Districts = 170
• Explaining the Marriage Bar = 171
• The Decline of the Marriage Bar in the 1950's = 174
• The Long-Run Impact of the Marriage Bar = 177
• Hours of Work and Part-time Employment = 179
• Hours of Work = 179
• Part-time Employment = 180
• Summary: Easing the Constraints = 183
• 7. The Political Economy of Gender = 185
• Historical Dimensions of Public Policy = 186
• Origins and Impact of Protective Legislation = 189
• Hours and Employment Effects of Maximum Hours Legislation = 195
• Protective Legislation Versus Equality = 198
• The Federal Government and the Economic Status of Women = 199
• The President's Commission on the Status of Women, 1963 = 200
• The 1963 Equal Pay Act and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act = 201
• Origins of Discontent = 202
• Perceptions of Discrimination = 203
• Discontent Among College Graduates = 206
• The New Political Economy of Gender: Comparable Worth and Title VII = 208
• Summary: Altering the Rules = 210
• 8. Economic Progress and Gender Equality = 211
• The Present = 211
• The Past = 213
• The Future = 215
• Appendix to Chapter 2: Corrections to the c. 1890 Female Labor Force Participation Rates = 219
• Data Appendix = 228
• Notes = 233
• References = 263
• Index = 281