Sir William Temple, “the Hume of the Seventeenth Century”

민은경 한국18세기영문학회 2024 18세기영문학 Vol.21 No.1

This essay attempts to resituate and revaluate the writings of William Temple (1628-1699) as a major English writer of the late seventeenth century. Although Temple was widely read in his time and throughout the eighteenth century, he has been largely forgotten in recent literary history. This essay, which is intended to serve as a preamble to a separate study of Temple’s essays, focuses on Temple’s political writings and aims to correct the nineteenth-century dismissal of Temple–in particular, Macaulay’s judgment that “He was no profound thinker.” In order properly to recover Temple’s significance in English history, it is important to attend to his role in the seventeenth-century Anglo-Dutch Wars and Anglo-Dutch relations. Another important context is the history of English political thought. Although Temple was not a political philosopher, he was a significant interlocutor with David Hume. This essay examines the relation between Temple and Hume, tracing Hume’s published commentaries on Temple’s works as well as points of convergence in their political writings. It also tests C. B. Macpherson’s statement that Temple was “the Hume of the seventeenth century” by noting their differences in writing style and theoretical orientation. Rather than propounding a theory of direct influence, this essay thus attempts to foreground a relationship of intellectual sympathy between the two thinkers that can help us recognize Temple’s lasting contribution to English politics and literature.

조선시대 사찰계의 고려 결사 전통 계승과 변용- 수행 토대의 지속과 변형을 중심으로 -

전효진 동아시아불교문화학회 2026 동아시아불교문화 Vol.- No.73

본 연구는 조선시대 불교 결사체의 존속 양상을 사찰계(契)·회(會)를 중심으로 고찰하고, 고려시대 결사 전통과의 계승 및 변용 관계의 분석이다. 한국불교의 결사는 삼국시대 이래 공동체적 신행의 흐름 속에서 전개되었으며, 고려 후기에는 지눌의 정혜결사와 요세의 백련결사가 수행 중심의 대표적 결사로 체계화되었다. 그러나 조선시대에는 억불정책과 전란의 반복으로 교단 기반이 급격히 약화되면서, 고려와 같은 수행 결사 형태가 지속되기 어려운 조건이 형성되었다. 이에 조선불교의 계·회는 사찰의 중창과 보수, 불구 마련, 경전 간행, 의례 운영 등 사찰 존립을 위한 경제 및 조직적 기반을 우선하여 확보하는 방식으로 변용된 결사체였다. 본 연구는 조선시대 사찰계·회의 운영 사례를 통해 기반의 조성을 필두로 수행과 교화라는 본래 목적 달성에서 나아가, 재정의 보충과 재투자로 이어지는 선순환 구조를 도출하고, 이것이 단순한 재화 축적 조직을 넘어 수행과 포교라는 불교 교단의 주요 기능을 유지하기 위한 실천 원칙 아래 작동하였음을 논증한다. 결론적으로 조선시대 사찰계는 고려 결사 전통의 수행 정신을 제한된 조건 속에서 지속시키면서도, 시대적 요구에 따라 조직 운영의 초점을 재정 및 제도적 기반으로 이동시킨 변용의 결과였으며, 이는 근현대 사찰 운영 체계의 이해에도 유효한 역사적 시사점을 제공한다. This study examines the continuity and transformation of Buddhist associative organizations in the Joseon dynasty, with particular attention to the emergence and development of temple-based associations (sachal-gye, 寺刹契) as a pragmatic mode of sustaining the Buddhist community under adverse political and social conditions. While the concept of gye (契) is widely discussed in studies of late Joseon local society and economic history, its Buddhist forms have often been treated as peripheral or reduced to informal financial groups. This paper argues that temple-based gye should be understood not merely as economic cooperatives but as institutional mechanisms that enabled the restoration and maintenance of Buddhist monastic infrastructure and the continuation of religious functions. By analyzing a broad range of epigraphic and documentary sources—including temple association registers, dedicatory inscriptions, and compilations preserved in digital archives—this study reconstructs the organizational purposes and operational logic of Joseon temple associations. The findings demonstrate that many temple-based gye were established to secure material foundations necessary for monastic survival: rebuilding halls, repairing temple facilities, acquiring ritual implements, and financing printed scriptures or devotional icons. These activities, however, were not ends in themselves; rather, they created the conditions for sustaining Buddhist practice and propagation amid prolonged institutional suppression and the aftermath of repeated warfare. Furthermore, this paper situates Joseon temple associations within a longer tradition of Korean Buddhist reform movements by briefly revisiting the two influential Goryeo-period precedents—Jinul’s Samādhi and Prajñā Community (Jeonghye-gyeolsa, 定慧結社) and Yose’s White Lotus Society (Baengnyeon-gyeolsa, 白蓮結社). Although Joseon associations differed in form and historical motivation, they retained key elements of earlier communal religious efforts: the prioritization of practice-oriented discipline, the integration of devotional traditions, and the pursuit of communal stability through organized participation of both monastic and lay members. Ultimately, this study proposes that the transformation from the explicit “sangha reform movement” of the Goryeo period to the infrastructural and organizational strategies of Joseon temple associations reflects not decline, but adaptive continuity, revealing how Korean Buddhism reconfigured its institutional resilience under state-imposed constraints.

조선후기 사찰의 토지 소유와 변동

김선기 한국사연구회 2023 한국사연구 Vol.- No.200

Land ownership by monks during the Joseon Dynasty was a common phenomenon. The temple was operated based on the private property of monks. Therefore, the number of monks was closely related to the economic power of the temple. This aspect can be examined in detail through the case of Daedunsa Temple in Haenam. The land status of Daedunsa Temple in the late Joseon Dynasty is confirmed in <Daedunsadapgo(Daedunsa temple land register)> and <Daedunsajungdapgo((Daedunsa temple land register))>. <Daedunsadapgo> contains a total of 66 Gyeol 98 Bu 7 Sok(Gyeol, Bu and Sok are Units of land measure) land created from the late 17th century to the early 19th century, and about 54.5% of the total land area was donated by monks. This shows that monks played a pivotal role in accumulating land in temples. However, in 1750, the number of monks decreased with the implementation of Gyunyeokbeop(Equalized Tax Law). In fact, Daedunsa Temple also revealed a sharp decline in the number of monks surviving after become a Buddhist monk since the 1760s. The decline in the number of monks led to the reduction of the temple's economic power. <Daedunsajungdapgo> contains a total of 13 Gyeol 87 Bu 5 Sok land created from the early 19th century to the end of the 19th century, indicating a 79% decrease in the total land area from the previous period. The structural cause of this phenomenon was the decrease in the number of monks due to Gyunyeokbeop. In the end, unless the fundamental cause of the decrease in the number of monks was solved, the weakening of the temple's economic power after the 19th century was bound to continue. 조선시대 승인의 토지 소유는 일반적인 현상이었다. 사찰은 승인의 사유재산에 기반하여 운영되었다. 따라서 승도 수는 사찰의 경제력과 밀접한 관련이 있었다. 이러한 양상은 해남 대둔사의 사례를 통해 구체적으로 살펴볼 수 있다. 조선후기 대둔사의 토지 현황은 대둔사답고 와 대둔사중답고 에서 확인된다. 대둔사답고 에는 17세기 후반부터 19세기 초까지 조성된 총 66결 98부 7속의 토지가 수록되었는데, 전체 토지 면적의 약 54.5%가 승려의 시납으로 이루어졌다. 이는 사찰이 토지를 집적하는데 승려가 중추적인 역할을 담당하였다는 점을 보여준다. 그런데 1750년 균역법이 실시되면서 승도 수가 감소하는 현상이 발생하였다. 균역법의 시행으로 승역이 더 이상 헐역처로 기능하지 못하였기 때문이다. 실제 해남현두륜산대둔사고금신계승보안 에도 1760년대 이후 출가 후 존속 인원이 급감하는 양상이 드러났다. 승도의 감소는 사찰의 경제력 축소로 이어졌다. 대둔사중답고 에는 19세기 초부터 19세기 말까지 조성된 총 13결 87부 5속의 토지가 수록되어 이전 시기보다 전체 토지 면적의 약 79%가 감소한 것을 볼 수 있다. 이러한 현상의 구조적인 원인은 균역법으로 인한 승도의 감소에 있었다. 결국 승인의 감소라는 근본적인 원인을 해결하지 못하는 한 19세기 이후 사찰의 경제력 약화는 지속될 수밖에 없었다.

高麗時期 住持制 運營과 寺院經濟

李炳熙(Lee Byung-Hee) 한국사학회 2008 史學硏究 Vol.- No.90

고려시기 사원의 주지는 자신이 부임한 사원의 모든 운영을 책임지는 승려였다. 소속 승려들을 부양하고 이끌며, 불ㆍ보살을 받들고, 또한 신도 들을 조직하고 관리하며, 사원 건물을 보수ㆍ중창하는 일이 모두 그의 책임 하에 있었다. 주지의 구실ㆍ임무와 권한은 상당한 것이어서 주지의 역량 여부는 곧 사원의 성쇠를 좌우하였다. 사원의 경제운영에서도 주지가 가장 중요한 구실을 담당하였다. 고려 시기 주지는 통상 중요사원의 경우 국가가 임명해 부임하도록 하는 것이 원칙이었다. 특정인이 사적으로 조성한 경우 주지는 사사로이 이어가는 것이 보통이었다. 그 사원 가운데도 규모가 크고 중요할 경우 국가가 일정하게 관장하려고 시도하였다. 주지는 해당 사원의 승려들의 교학을 지도하고, 참선을 이끄는 구실을 수행하였다. 사원에서 행해지는 각종 불교 행사를 주관하는 구실도 담당하였다. 사원의 건물을 유지하고, 시설을 보수하는 것도 주지의 중요한 임무였다. 그리고 사원이 부닥치는 각종 비상 상황에 대처하는 것도 그의 책무였다. 주지가 임무를 제대로 수행하고 능력을 발휘할 때 일반승려들의 존경을 받았다. 주지의 임무와 구실에는 경제운영을 담당하는 것도 포함된다. 엄청난 母穀을 강제로 대여하여 막대한 이익을 확보하는 주지도 보였다. 고려시기 토지의 확대에서도 중심구실을 담당한 것은 주지였다 주지 가운데 베풀기를 잘해 큰 호응을 얻는 이도 있었으며, 또 재정을 절약해 운영함으로써 주목받는 이도 있었다. 개인재산을 사원에 희사하는 주지도 있었다. 고려후기 주지제 운영이 동요하면서 총애를 받는 특정 승려가 승정을 좌우하는 일이 많아지고 賂物에 의해 주지가 선임되는 일도 빈번해졌다. 주지가 사원의 건물과 시설이 파손되거나 무너진 상태로 두고 보수ㆍ중수하지 않는 일도 허다하게 보였다. 게다가 주지가 사원의 재산을 私物로 삼은 일도 빈번해졌다. 고려후기 사원경제의 문제는 주지제 운영의 문란과 짝하여 더욱 심각해져 갔다. 그렇기에 주지의 자질은 더욱 문제가 되어, 道行이 있고 利慾이 없는 자, 德行이 있는 자를 주지로 삼아야 한다는 주장이 반복해서 제기되었다. 조선초 사원경제의 개혁이 주지의 자질과 결부해 자주 거론됨은 이러한 사정에 연유한다. The Juji, a chief monk of a Buddhist temple, was in charge of managing the temple to which he was assigned in the Goryeo period The Juji also played the most important role in financially managing the temple. In principle, the Jujies of major temples were typically appointed by the government in the Goryeo period, However, when a temple was established by a certain person, the Juji of the temple was usually appointed and succeeded by privately without any influence of the government. But when privately constructed temples were large-scaled and important, the government made attempts to manage them consistently. The Juiies of temples taught Buddhist tenets to general monks and presided over Buddhist meditations. They also arranged various Buddhist events held in temples and were accountable for the maintenance of temples and repairing temple buildings. Besides, they were responsible for handling various emergency situations. When they perfectly carried out their tasks and exhibited their abilities, they received respects from general monks. Jujies were also in charge of financially managing temples. Some Jujies made lots of profits by forcefully loaning a huge amount of grains to poor peasants. In addition, they played a crucial role in expanding the land of temples. While some Jujies helped poor people and therefore received lots of respects, others attracted people's attention by economically managing temples. Some even donated their private wealth to temples. As the Juji system was poorly maintained in the late Goryeo period, some monks who won the king's favor often exerted a significant influence on Buddhist policies and bribes were frequently paid to exercise an influence on appointing the Jujies of temples. Lot of Jujies did not try to repair damaged buildings or facilities of temples. Besides, Quite a few Jujies privatized the properties of temples. As a result. the Qualities of Jujies were often Questioned, raising the argument that those who behaved reasonably, had no desire for wealth, and were virtuous should be Jujies. These explain why the economic reformation of temples was often linked with the Qualifications of Jujies in the early Joseon period.

조선전기 억불정책의 전개와 사원경제의 변화상

김용태 조선시대사학회 2011 조선시대사학보 Vol.58 No.-

In this article, how the Joseon government's policy of oppressing Buddhist practices unfolded during the dynasty's early half, is first examined. Then, why the traditional Jabok-sa/資福寺 temples(temples for praying for good fortune) were replaced by the so-called 'Renowned temples(名刹)' during king Taejong's reign, and in such process how the Confucian sets of protocols were promoted and encouraged throughout the country and eventually became the trend of the era, are analyzed. And finally, what kind of changes were made to the economic environment within the temples, which included the temples' land units and Nobi servants, are examined as well. In the early half of the 15th century, the Joseon government oppressed the Buddhist temples by confiscating all the lands and servants that previously belonged to them. As a result, in the early 16th century the Buddhist community was stripped of all its legal base for survival, and was in danger of being eliminated for good. This was a social change that definitely signaled for the upcoming Neo-Confucian society, in the eyes of the Joseon people. Yet such changes, which also included discussions of the issue of either abolishing or retaining the institution of requiring certain qualifications from a person who wished to become a Buddhist priest, or the reduction of the overall temple economy with all its lands and personnel transferred over to the government, did not happen overnight. It only progressed over time with relation to certain political and social issues of the time. Also, as the Buddhist community continued to display various kinds of efforts of its own since the mid-16th century, their basis of activities was to some extent restored, after the 17th century. 본고에서는 먼저 조선전기 억불정책의 추이를 개관하였고, 태종대에 전통적 資福寺를 名刹로 대체하는 과정에서 나타난 유교적 禮制의 구현과 그 시대성을 고찰하였다. 이어 사원재정의 가장 중요한 기반이었던 寺田과 寺奴를 매개로 경제적 변화의 실상을 검토하였다. 15세기 전반 사전과 사노를 국가에서 대규모로 속공하는 억불정책이 단행되었고 그 귀결로 16세기 초에 법제적 폐불 상태가 되면서 불교의 인적 존립마저 위태로운 상황에 이르렀다. 이는 이후 성리학 사회의 본격적 도래를 알리는 신호탄이었다. 하지만 승려자격을 허용하는 度僧의 존폐, 사전과 사노의 축소 및 성격 변화가 일시에 이루어진 것은 아니었고 시대조류의 변동과 연동하여 계기적으로 진행되었다. 또한 불교계는 16세기 중반부터 다양한 노력을 기울인 결과 17세기 이후의 존립기반을 확고히 다질 수 있었다.

백용성스님의 민족운동

한태식 대각사상연구원 2010 大覺思想 Vol.14 No.-

Master Baek, Yong-seong(1864-1940) has been studied mainly in Buddhism. This paper expanded the view to the national movement under Japanese imperialism. Followings are some of the essential facts. First, he played a main role in the national movement for independence. He started it by writing 『Guiwong-jungjong 歸源正宗』. He criticized the prevalence of Christianity as invading Korean traditional religion. Next, he was against Won Order, which attempted to merge Korean Buddhism with Japanese Buddhism, and participated in the propaganda section as a president. Furthermore, he was one of 33 representatives in 3.1 Independence Movement. As a result, he had suffered in the prison for a long time, but never surrendered, and continued the movement. Second, Master exerted developing the national spirit. The Japanese government tried to make Korean Buddhism like that of Japan. It declared the temple law nationwide, and formed the structure of 31 main temples. Japan deleted the requirement that monks had to be remained single, making Korean monks got married. Master submitted a white paper warning twice. which became the origin of Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism after emancipation. Third, Master conducted a movement for propagation of Korean Language (Hangeul). During the prohibited period of Hangeul, he translated sutras into Hangeul and propagated them widely. His translation of sutras was not limited in Buddhism, but also was a national independence movement. Last, Master Baek, Yong-seong exerted himself to national economic independence movement. He participated in the minor business, while managing farm in order to practice Seon(Zen)-agriculture Buddhism. Temples' economic independence and farm production were a part of independence movement. Therefore, all of his activities were evaluated that they were not limited to Buddhism, but also were the process of national independence movement. 백용성스님(1864-1940)에 대해서 지금까지는 불교의 범주 안에서 그의 행적을 조명하였으나 그 범위를 넓혀 민족이라는 차원에서 몇 가지로 요약하여 살펴보았다. 첫째는 민족독립운동이다. 그의 독립운동의 시작은 『歸源正宗』의 저술에서 부터라고 할 수 있다. 서구 기독교의 범람은 우리 민족의 고유 종교의 침략으로 보았다. 다음으로 조선불교를 일본 조동종에 병합하려던 圓宗에 반대하여 臨濟宗中央布敎堂의 개교사장으로 참여하여 활동한 것도 민족운동의 하나로 보인다. 마지막으로 그가 민족대표로 된 것은 3,1독립운동의 33인으로 참여한 것이다. 이로 인하여 오랜 옥고를 치르고 고통을 겪었지만 그는 평생토록 지조를 지키고 끝까지 독립운동을 전개하였다. 둘째는 민족정신 진흥운동이다. 일제는 민족정신말살정책의 하나로 한국불교를 왜색화하려고 하였다. 따라서 전국에 사찰령을 발표하여 전국의 사찰을 31본사제도로 만들었다. 그러면서 주지의 자격에서 독신비구조항을 삭제하여 한국승려들을 대처화하였다. 이에 반대하여 대처의 부당함을 지적하고 비구승단이 되어야 함을 주창하는 불교정화운동의 건백서를 2차에 걸쳐 제출하였다. 이것이 해방이후 대한불교조계종 탄생의 시원이 되기도 하였다. 이러한 활동은 민족전통불교의 회복운동이며, 민족운동의 일환이라고 볼 수 있다. 셋째는 한글보급운동이다. 그는 일제가 한글 사용을 금지하던 시기에 불경을 한글로 번역하여 보급하는데 적극적으로 노력하였다. 이러한 경전번역사업은 단순한 불교적인 차원이 아니라 일제에 저항하는 민족운동 차원에서 이루어졌다고 볼 수 있다. 넷째는 민족경제 자립운동이다. 그는 광산업에 참여하기도 하였으며, 직접 농장을 개간하여 禪農佛敎를 실천하였다. 사원경제의 자립과 생산불교의 실천은 민족경제의 자립을 통한 독립운동의 일환으로 볼 수 있다. 따라서 그의 모든 활동은 단순히 불교적인 차원이 아니라 민족의 독립운동과 연관되지 않음이 없는 민족운동의 전개과정으로 평가하고 한다.

특집 1 : 當代中國佛敎的現狀與使命

위도유 ( Dao Ru Wei ) 동아시아불교문화학회 2007 동아시아불교문화 Vol.1 No.-

From 1980s, Chinese Buddhism has undergone rapid development in the numbers of monks and nuns, scale of organizations as well as temple economy. More and more academic institutes appear in the Buddhist field. Books and articles written and published by Buddhists increase with very large scopes. The research achievements concern with scriptures, history of Buddhist sects, Buddhist philosophy, literature, art and Buddhist ceremonies etc.. Apart from Chinese Buddhist College subordinated to Chinese Association of Buddhism, there exist several decades of Buddhist colleges with different scale in China. They foster a large number of Buddhist talents. Chinese Association of Buddhism advocates Chinese Buddhist field to develop the Buddhist education and promote the quality of believers. Temples in the whole country should also invest more capital in the Buddhist education and enhance the grade of temples. For more than ten years, the scale, scope and influence increasingly enlarge of benevolent activities that Chinese Buddhism participates. In maintaining and developing traditional friendly relationship with Asian countries such as South Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Mongolia, Thailand, Burma and Nepal, Chinese Buddhist circle gradually sets up and strengthens the friendly relationship with Buddhist organizations and believers in Europe, America and Oceania. Chinese Buddhism emphasizes, advocates excellent traditions and accordingly makes great efforts in these fields such as ardent love to motherland and Buddhism, care for Sattva, emphasis on ethics and morality, advocate for benevolence and public benefits, love for peace, emphasis on cultural construction as well as attention to international friendly exchanges. At present, Chinese Buddhism lies in an unprecedented good social environment. There is wider space for it to bring into play the social function of benefiting the world and people. Chinese Buddhism can play a particular role in constructing socialist harmonious society by expanding positive doctrines to purify the mind of oneself, by applying Buddhist ethics to promote the harmony between people and society, by putting effort into environment protection to promote the harmony between human being and nature. For Chinese Buddhism, to serve the construction of harmonious society domestically as well as contribute to the construction of a harmonious world internationally is an indispensably historical mission in the new century. Significantly, it is also the only way for Chinese Buddhism to keep pace with the time, adjust itself to the society and realize its healthy development.

백성욱 박사의 경제사상 연구

김강녕 한국민족사상학회 2020 민족사상 Vol.14 No.3

This paper is intended to analyze Ph. D. Baek Sung-wook's economic thought. To this end the paper is composed of 5 chapters titled introduction; the life and research achievements of Ph. D.. Baek Sung-wook; the economic thought of Ph. D. Baek Sung-wook; Ph.D. Baek Sung-wook's practice virtues for the living economy; and conclusion. As an independence activist, scholar, attendant, politician, and educator, he is a particularly important figure in modern and contemporary Buddhist history in Korea. As the No. 1 Ph.D. in Buddhist studies, both at home and abroad, he established the basic theory of Buddhist philosophy and carried out the practice based on the recitation of the Geumganggyeong, producing numerous disciples. Ph. D. Baek Sung-wook's economic thought can be largely summarized as ①triad social organization theory, ②the relative theory of equality and inequality(harmony), and ③the theory of modern management of temple economy. His practical virtues for the living economy can be largely summarized as ①diligence and almsgiving, ②uniting knowledge and conduct ③making happiness. The Buddhist thought and social and economic thought of Ph. D. Baek Sung-wook are expected to contribute greatly to the modernization and popularization of Buddhism, as they are characterized by ①maintaining systematic and logical consistency, and ②having virtue that can be practiced by both a monk and a lay person. 본 논문은 백성욱 박사의 경제사상을 분석하기 위한 것이다. 이를 위해 그의 생애와 연구업적, 그의 경제사상, 그의 생활경제 실천덕목을 살펴본 후 결론을 도출해본 것이다. 그는 독립운동가, 학자, 수행자, 정치인, 교육자로서 특히 한국 근현대불교사에서 중요한 위치를 차지하는 인물이다. 그는 국내외를 막론하고 한국인으로서 불교학 1호 박사로서 불교철학의 기본이론을 정립하고 금강경 독송을 기본으로 삼아 수행하여 수많은 제자들을 배출하였다. 백성욱 박사의 경제사상은 크게 ①삼기사회조직론, ②평등‧불평등의 상대론(조화론), ③사원경제 현대적 운영론으로 요약‧정리해볼 수 있다. 그의 생활경제 실천덕목은 크게 ①근면과 보시, ②지행합일, ③작복 등으로 정리해볼 수 있다. 백성욱 박사의 불교사상 및 사회·경제사상은 ①체계적·논리적 일관성 유지, ②재가자·출가자 공히 실천가능한 덕목의 구비의 특징을 지니고 있어 향후 불교의 현대화·대중화에 크게 기여할 것으로 기대된다.

19세기 조선불교의 동향과 특성

오경후 한국선학회 2022 한국선학 Vol.- No.62

Buddhism in the Joseon Dynasty went through major changes with the Imjin War and the Manchu War as an opportunity. When the dynasty was active in political and socioeconomic recovery after the war, the Buddhist community also did its best to restore it. Efforts to improve the identity and practice of Joseon Buddhism and to rearrange the sect were also major changes in the Buddhist world at the time. First of all, the disciples, centered on Cheongheo Hyujeong, rearranged the Dharma Tradition centered on Imjeseon (臨濟禪), and defined Taego bowu(太古普愚), who was directly affected by it, as the beginning. The Joseon Buddhist community ended the conflict and confrontation between the Seon sect and the Doctrine sect through the HarmoniousIntegration of Chan(禪) and Doctrine(敎), and established a practice climate for emphasis on Zen Practice. After attaining enlightenment, research and education on the 『the Avatamsaka sutra』 was also very successful. Along with such internal system reorganization and positive social awareness of the Buddhist world, self-rescue measures for the recovery of the employee economy were more active. This period also served as an opportunity to further solidify the identity of Joseon Buddhism through the praises of Saji(寺 誌) and Biography of eminent monk(高僧傳). At that time, the fact that Buddhism was active in accommodating the trends of the times as well as academics while interacting with Jeong Yak-yong and Kim Jeong-hee served as an opportunity for rapid development. Although Buddhism in the 19th century was still maintained by the dynasty's Buddhist policy, it achieved gradual development through continuous self-rescue measures in terms of practice, ideology, and temple economy. This became the driving force behind the birth of modern and modern Buddhism in Korea. 조선시대 불교는 임진왜란과 병자호란을 계기로 큰 변화를 겪는다. 왕조가 전란 이후정치와 사회경제적 복구에 적극적이었을 때 불교계 역시 그 회복에 최선을 다했다. 조선불교의 정체성과 수행과 교단 정비를 위한 노력 역시 당시 불교계의 큰 변화였다. 우선 청허 휴정을 중심으로 한 제자들은 임제선(臨濟禪) 중심으로 법통을 정비했고, 그 직접적인 영향을 받은 태고 보우를 그 시초로 규정하였다. 조선불교계는 선교일치를 통해선종과 교종의 갈등과 대립을 마치고 선주교종(禪主敎從)의 수행풍토를 정립시켰다. 깨달음을 얻고 중생교화를 위한 『화엄경』 연구와 교육 역시 크게 성행하였다. 이와 같은 내부의 체제정비와 사회의 불교계에 대한 긍정적 인식과 함께 사원경제 회복을 위한 자구책 마련은 더욱 적극적이었다. 이 시기는 사지와 고승전의 찬술을 통해 조선불교의 정체성을 더욱 확고히 하는 계기가 되기도 하였다. 당시 불교계가 정약용이나 김정희와교유하면서 학문과 함께 시대사조를 수용하는데 적극적이었던 점은 불교계가 비약적으로 발전할 수 있었던 계기가 되기도 하였다. 19세기 불교는 여전히 왕조의 불교정책이지속되었지만, 수행과 사상, 그리고 사원경제적인 측면에서 지속적인 자구책 마련을 통해 점진적인 발전을 이루어갔다. 이것은 한국의 근현대불교를 탄생시키는 원동력이 되기도 했다.

백용성스님의 민족운동

한보광(태식) 대각사상연구원 2010 大覺思想 Vol.14 No.-

Master Baek, Yong-seong(1864-1940) has been studied mainly in Buddhism. This paper expanded the view to the national movement under Japanese imperialism. Followings are some of the essential facts. First, he played a main role in the national movement for independence. He started it by writing 『Guiwong-jungjong 歸源正宗』. He criticized the prevalence of Christianity as invading Korean traditional religion. Next, he was against Won Order, which attempted to merge Korean Buddhism with Japanese Buddhism, and participated in the propaganda section as a president. Furthermore, he was one of 33 representatives in 3.1 Independence Movement. As a result, he had suffered in the prison for a long time, but never surrendered, and continued the movement. Second, Master exerted developing the national spirit. The Japanese government tried to make Korean Buddhism like that of Japan. It declared the temple law nationwide, and formed the structure of 31 main temples. Japan deleted the requirement that monks had to be remained single, making Korean monks got married. Master submitted a white paper warning twice. which became the origin of Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism after emancipation. Third, Master conducted a movement for propagation of Korean Language (Hangeul). During the prohibited period of Hangeul, he translated sutras into Hangeul and propagated them widely. His translation of sutras was not limited in Buddhism, but also was a national independence movement. Last, Master Baek, Yong-seong exerted himself to national economic independence movement. He participated in the minor business, while managing farm in order to practice Seon(Zen)-agriculture Buddhism. Temples' economic independence and farm production were a part of independence movement. Therefore, all of his activities were evaluated that they were not limited to Buddhism, but also were the process of national independence movement.