세리 르빈(Sherrie Levine)의 리포토그래피(rephotography) 연구

Levine, Sherrie 숙명여자대학교 대학원 2001 국내석사

본 논문은 모더니즘 미술가들의 작품을 사진으로 찍어 미술 작품으로 제시한 세리 르빈의 리포토그래피에 관한 연구이다. 1970년대 말부터 다양한 이론적 패러다임을 통해서 사진에 대해 논의하는 것이 시작되었고, 미국 미술계에서 『옥토버』를 중심으로 활동한 이론가들은 후기구조주의에서 영향을 받아 기계 복제 시대의 예술인 사진이 모더니즘 미술을 전복시킬 수 있는 매체임을 인식하면서 사진의 역할을 강조했다. 이러한 태도는 1980년대의 사진 비평과 동일 선상에 있는데, 당시의 사진 비평은 1950년대와 1960년대에 모더니즘 미술로 재규정된 사진에 대해 이의를 제기했고, 특히 미술계가 1970년대의 경제 불황을 극복하기 위해 재평가하고 흡수한 사진들이 사진적 실천의 다양성과 차이를 무시한 편협한 범주였다는 사실에 주목했다. 본 논문에서는 이와 같은 미술계의 변화를 배경으로, 차용 행위로 간주되는 르빈의 리포토그래피가 포스트모더니즘 미술 작품으로 인정받을 수 있는 이유를 크게 두 가지 면에서 살펴보고 있다. 우선, 르빈의 리포토그래피는 모더니즘 미학의 붕괴를 표명하고 있다. 미술 작품의 독창성과 저자성은 모더니즘 미술의 원동력이자 신조이다. 그러나 르빈은 미술 작품에서 근본적으로 독창적인 것이 있을 수 없다는 입장을 취하는데, 이러한 르빈의 태도는 마르셀 뒤샹의 레디메이드, 다다의 콜라주와 몽타주, 팝 미술가들이 대중 매체에서 가져온 이미지 등에서 이어진 역사적인 맥락을 갖고 있다. 그러므로 미술 작품의 사진 복제품을 재촬영한 르빈의 리포토그래피는, 현존하는 사진 이미지의 재순환을 보여주면서 미술 작품에서 독창성이 더 이상 필수적인 요 소가 아님을 주장하는 포스트모더니즘 미술이다. 이러한 르빈의 리포토그래피는 미술가의 죽음을 선언하고 있다. 자율적 주체에 대한 후기구조주의의 문제 제기에서 발전된 저자의 죽음이 르빈의 리포토그래피에서는 미술가의 죽음으로 표현되며, 그 결과 관객이 탄생한다. 즉, 작품의 출전을 밝히는 제목과 함께 제시된 르빈의 리포토그래피는 고정되고 통일된 원천으로서의 개성있는 미술가라는 낭만적인 개념에 이의를 제기하고, 이와 동시에 미술 작품의 의미를 창조하고 완성하는 능동적인 관객의 역할을 강조한다. 다음으로, 르빈의 리포토그래피는 지배적 가치 체계에 대한 저항으로 평가할 수 있다. 서양미술사가 남성의 욕망을 찬양하는 장이며 그러한 결과물의 역사이기에, 르빈이 모더니즘 미술의 위대한 남성 대가들의 작품과 그 속에 담긴 타자의 이미지를 차용함으로써 여성 미술가인 자신의 입지를 구축하기가 얼마나 어려운지를 보여준 것은 분명 페미니즘 미술로 간주되는 점이다. 또한 모더니즘 미술의 신조들을 파기한 르빈의 리포토그래피는 바깥 세상과 밀접한 관계를 맺고 있는 사진 고유의 속성을 무시한 모더니즘 사진과의 결별이자 미술관 제도에 관한 비판으로 여겨진다. 다시 말해, 르빈의 리포토그래피는 미술관의 존립 근거인 독창적인 미술 작품, 개성있는 미술가라는 개념이 지니는 취약함을 폭로하면서, 사진은 복합적이고 다층적이며 예술 사진 이외의 다른 담론들에 유용하다는 사실을 증명하고 있는 것이다. 하지만 남성 미술가의 작품만을 차용하는 르빈의 행위는 정신분석학적인 차원에서 여성성이라는 가면으로 보여질 수 있는데, 이는 르빈이 그들에 대한 사랑과 존경을 표현하는 가면을 쓰고 이미 미술사에서 검증받은 그들의 이름과 작품을 자신이 받고자 하는 인정으로 이용하고 있는 것으로 해석할 수 있기 때문이다. 아울러 르빈의 작품이 여타의 다른 포스트모더니즘 미술 작품들처럼 미술관에 흡수되었을 때, 리포토그래피가 가졌던 비판적인 효과가 유효한지도 재고해 보아야 한다. 르빈의 리포토그래피가 오히려 원작의 가치를 올리고 또 하나의 독창적인 미술 작품이 되어 상품 문화에 순응할 때, 차용이라는 전략이 예전에 가졌던 파괴적이고 비판적인 능력을 계속해서 유지하기 어렵다는 점을 주목해야 할 것이다. In the late 1970's, art historians began to discuss photography using diverse theoretical paradigms. Theoreticians associated with October magazine, greatly influenced by poststructuralism, recognized that photography can subvert modern art and emphasized its function. Their position is consonant with photography criticism in the 1980's that called into question the definition of photography as modern art during the 1950's and 1960's. Such photography was later reappraised and has even been credited with overcoming the economic recession of the art world during the 1970's. However, it is an insular category that neglects the multiplicity of photographic practice. My thesis is a study of Sherrie Levine's rephotography, a technique whereby the artist photographs reproductions of the art works of modern masters and then shows the photographs as her own work. I examine the reasons why Levine's rephotography, as a work of appropriation, constitutes postmodern art. First, I acknowledge that Levine's rephotography demonstrates the collapse of modern aesthetics. Originality and authorship are both the motives and the tenets of art in the modern era, but Levine posits that an original work cannot exist in the artwork fundamentally. Levine's position has its historical roots in Marcel Duchamp's Readymade, the Dada practice of collage and montage, and in Pop Art's mass media images. She utilizes a recycling of existing photographic images and asserts that the originality of artwork is not an essential element of the form. Levine's rephotography announces "the death of the artist". The concept of "the death of the author" developed from poststructuralism, which addresses the notion of an autonomous subject. Levine's rephotography works refute the romantic concept of the individual artist as having a fixed character and place of origin. At the same time, her work emphasizes active viewing in order to create the meaning of the artwork. Second, I examine Levine's rephotography as a resistance to a system that values the works of masters at the expense and exclusion of other artists. Western art history epitomizes the praise of man's desire and its results, so Levine's rephotography, which appropriates only the works of great modern male artists and the images of "the Other" in their works, expresses how difficult it is to be a woman artist. Her rephotography deconstructs the tenets of modern art. It represents a break with modern photography rejecting photography's traditional relationship to the outside world and criticizes the museum as an institution. Her rephotography exposes the concepts of original artwork and the personal artist, elements that form the basis of art museums, demonstrating that photography is complex, multi-layered, and central to discourses other than "art photography". Last, I consider whether the critical effect of rephotography is valid. Levine's appropriation of exclusively male artists' works represents "womanliness as a masquerade". Her behavior may be interpreted as the use of famous names and works in order to gain recognition for herself. When Levine's work is treated by museums in the same manner as other postmodern art works, it enhances the value of the original work of art as well as becoming another original work itself. Her work accommodates itself to the marketplace of art. We must conclude that the strategy of appropriation can hardly maintain its deconstructive and critical powers when it joins the mainstream of culture.

Understanding incentives in health care

Levine, Anna A Stanford University 2008 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

Chapter 1 provides a brief overview of the biotechnology pharmaceutical industry, providing both context and motivation for the empirical model estimated in Chapter 2. Chapter 1 includes a discussion of pharmaceutical drug pricing, a historical overview of the industry, as well as a quantitative description of the direct payments physicians in Minnesota received from pharmaceutical firm between 2002--2004. The second chapter, empirically quantifies how market structure influences the split of producer surplus innovators receive for successful innovation in the biotechnology pharmaceutical industry. I find that pharmaceutical marketing firms' values for adding a new drug to their product portfolio depend on the distribution of the other products marketed in the same physician specialty as the drug, the size of the patient market the drug serves, and the number of physicians in the physician specialty that prescribe the drug. I show how the level of competition in the bidding market for the marketing rights of a successful innovation varies across markets. In particular, when the distribution of marketing rights for products in a physician specialty are concentrated in a single firm, the bargaining position of the innovator is weakened and this effect becomes more severe as the size of the physician specialty increases. The difference between the firm with the highest valuation and the firm with the second highest valuation increases by an average of 2% for every additional 10,000 physicians in a specialty. In the third chapter, I examine the effect of state legislation restricting physician investment in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) facilities on the usage and availability of MRI technology. I find that this legislation decreases the number of MRI machines available by 12%. In addition, I find that the legislation has a larger effect on the number of machines available in hospital based facilities than those available in non hospital based facilities. I find the law shifts where procedures are performed from hospital based facilities to non-hospital based facilities, but I do not find conclusive evidence that the law decreases the number of procedures performed in these states. In order to identify these effects, I use data from an MRI census performed from 1992--1998 as well as information on state legislation restricting physician investments in MRI facilities. My results demonstrate that when considering the effect of a law regulating contracts between experts and service providers, the law's impact on ownership patterns should be considered in addition to the law's impact on the availability of technology and the overall level of utilization.

Motivational frameworks among children in early elementary school

박다은 ProQuest LLC UMI Dissertation Publishing 2014 국내박사

Forest Resilience Measured: Using a Multi-Timescale Approach to Quantify Forest Resilience in a Changing World

Levine, Carrie Levine ProQuest Dissertations & Theses University of Cali 2017 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

Maintaining the resilience of ecological systems in an era of global change is a priority for management and conservation. In California, forests are currently threatened by a suite of disturbances that include altered fire regimes, legacy effects from timber harvesting, a warming and drying climate, chronic air pollution, and uncharacteristically severe attacks by insects and pathogens. Managing to preserve the characteristic structure and function of California forests under novel disturbance regimes requires a clear understanding of these forests' historical conditions as well as an understanding of the drivers of change in these forests. A major challenge of managing for resilience is the lack of quantifiable metrics to assess changes in a system's resilience over time. This dissertation uses a multi-timescale approach that quantifies changes in the structure and composition of California mixed-conifer forests since European settlement and suggests a framework for measuring and monitoring forest resilience. This work can be used to guide conservation and restoration activities with the goal of maintaining the characteristic structure and function of forests under changing disturbance regimes. (Abstract shortened by ProQuest.).

Unveiling Planetary Processes with the Solar System and Exoplanets

Levine, William Garrison Yale University ProQuest Dissertations & Theses 2025 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

Both solar system and exoplanet science study the same class of objects to advance our knowledge of fundamental planetary processes. Our solar system provides a detailed view of a single planetary system in one epoch. In contrast, exoplanets offer sparser data from thousands of diverse systems in various evolutionary states. Holistic research on planetary objects must draw from both complementary sources. After introducing this mindset in Chapter 1, Chapters 2-4, each highlight a case study with this philosophy.Chapters 2 & 3 draw on an emergent pathway to connect the solar system and exoplanets: interstellar small bodies. The discovery of 1I/`Oumuamua in 2017, the first-detected planetesimal of extrasolar origin, provided an unprecedented chance to study exoplanetary material at high-resolution. However, the curious properties of `Oumuamua did not suggest any solar system analogs; to date, there remains no scientific consensus on the nature of `Oumuamua. Nonetheless, these attributes raise new questions on the physical, chemical, and dynamical processes that sculpt small bodies.For example, `Oumuamua's shape was more elongated than nearly all known solar system objects of similar size. Because this shape manifests as lightcurve variability, wide-field discovery surveys may be biased for or against aspherical asteroids. Thus, Chapter 2 uses this property of `Oumuamua for insight on solar system asteroids (Levine & Jedicke, 2023); population estimates for near-Earth asteroids can inform models of planetesimal collisions. Via injection-recovery tests, I find that elongated asteroids are less discoverable than their spherical counterparts. Shapes are not included in standard debiasing procedures, so I show that published asteroid populations may be incorrect. My results suggest that shapes may be causing longstanding discrepancies between surveys on the near-Earth asteroid population.Next, Chapter 3 examines processes that may sculpt small bodies during their host stars' asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phase (Levine et al., 2023). Although an unlikely explanation for `Oumuamua -- its inbound kinematics instead indicated an origin from a young planetary system -- the AGB mass-loss may generate interstellar small bodies by unbinding long-period orbits. Therefore, the questions arise of whether these objects (1) could comprise a sizeable fraction of galactic small bodies and (2) would be distinguishable from small bodies that were ejected during the star's main sequence. I use analytic and numerical arguments on the orbital and thermal evolution of small bodies to prove that both hypotheses are plausible. In addition, I model the search sensitivity of the Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) to elucidate how its (non)detection of such objects will constrain the average mass budget of extrasolar Oort Cloud analog regions; this region is among the most difficult to detect in our solar system.Finally, Chapter 4 uses aeronomy, the study of upper atmospheres, to examine hydrodynamic outflows of exoplanets (Levine et al., 2024). I argue that aeronomy is required to explain exoplanet radii, as stellar XUV may drive photoevaporative mass-loss. Furthermore, hydrodynamic escape likely sculpted early Earth and Venus but no longer occurs in the solar system. Thus, exoplanet research is necessary to empirically constrain this process. Fruitful work in aeronomy has observed a natural experiment of the Sun-Earth system over time; changing solar XUV is the independent variable to which Earth's thermosphere reacts. Applying this approach to exoplanets, I conduct a case study of WASP-69b with contemporaneous Palomar infrared transit observations and Swift Observatory X-Ray data. I show that the planetary metastable helium signal from escaping high-altitude gas dropped in tandem with the star's X-Ray flux. By calculating the expected planetary response to the X-Ray change via a Parker wind formalism, I attribute the mass-loss variability to WASP-69's stellar activity cycle, a canonical result in aeronomy but the first documented detection of this phenomenon on an exoplanet.To conclude, Chapter 5 discusses future research that will bridge solar system and exoplanet science. In the coming years, surveys like the LSST and NEO Surveyor will expand the small body census by five-fold. Determining the colors, orbits, and albedos for sub-km Main Belt asteroids will statistically test models of planetesimal collisions. Understanding the interplay of mineralogy and planetesimal growth is imperative for connecting the composition of dust in protoplanetary disks to the densities of mature exoplanets. In addition, the prolific use of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) for characterizing exoplanet atmospheres will further constrain the physics of hydrodynamic escape. NIRISS/SOSS has measured the metastable helium tracer for >20 targets, and a homogeneous analysis of that catalog will probe of planetary mass-loss across a broad parameter space.

The chronological paradox in customary international law (or, the virtue of sloppy timing in a messy world)

Levine, Daniel Harold Georgetown University 2005 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

Customary international law suffers from a problem known as the "chronological paradox." The orthodox understanding seems to require a state belief a norm is the law (opinio ) for it to become law. Existing approaches to the paradox violate either the law's created character or its normativity, because they share a commitment to a mentalistic/psychological and descriptive understanding of opinio. We should understand opinio as a matter of language, rather than belief. Further, the rule language that constitutes opinio should not be understood descriptively but rather as a species of what Austin dubbed performatives. Together, these ideas let me analyze the opinio element as a matter of moves with a discursive practice. In assessing whether some rule-expression is warranted, we look at it the proprieties of the practice, not at an external realm of rules. International legal discourse is flexible enough to allow rule change without paradox because it is a "messy" practice---one in which the propriety of moves is not fully determinate. There is not full convergence on proprieties amongst its participants, but so long as participants are committed to the practice, they will be able to give and demand reasons for and against particular uses of rule-expressions. A significant section of the essay is taken up in describing how such "messy" disputes can progress in customary law discourse, with particular reference to the debate over NATO's (putative) humanitarian intervention in Kosovo. I resolve the paradox neither precisely by solving it nor by dissolving it. The idea that new norms must be rooted in old norms is retained, but in terms of justificatory appeal rather than in terms of belief. I shift terms of the question from "what norms are there?" to "what kinds of justifications can be provided for the use of particular norm-expressions?" The latter question, unlike the former, is answerable. Because of messiness in the practice, it will not often have an unequivocal answer, but by way of compensation, there will generally be a lot to say in those situations where the warrant of a rule-expression's use is in dispute.

The Carceral Ethic and the Spirit of Ayahuasca

Levine, Zach ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Duke University 2022 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

This text is an ethnographic exploration of a carceral healing NGO inside of Porto Velho, Rondonia’s state prison system. Acuda was founded as a dream of ayahuasca’s, an indigenous plant medicine that became central to Brazil’s Catholicized ayahuasca religions in the mid-20th century, but also by way of a state-directed collaboration for filling employment quotas for the recently incarcerated. Acuda—technically an acronym, describing an association for “culturally” resocializing prisoners as workers—also draws on an antiquated language for spiritual rescue. Its work since 2002 has sought to marry the prerogatives of making people workable within a state economy with spiritually rescuing those lost inside of the state prison body. Its call to save people from that which it institutionally reproduces is the basis for a wide range of instances—those which plentifully compose this ethnography—where transformation is made to stay in place, or the “quantic healing” of prisoners augurs to fix liberation within stationary enclosures. This includes the NGO’s work to train prisoners as healers, which has the more common effect of gaining them employment, upon release, either inside the NGO itself or in political bureaus, including those that oversee the state Justice. The specific impetus for this effort in spiritual resocialization is work, which is also the term the ayahuasca religions give to the ritual where the plants are consecrated: trabalhos. For three years, and in a program with an ongoing afterlife, the NGO gained both state permission and “astral authorization” to furlough over 150 prisoners to the Barquinha ayahuasca-religious church in the south of the state. The work in your hands is an attempt to make sense of two years of ethnographic research I conducted, trailing these ongoing movements of stasis and expansion, release and incarceration, work and freedom, among the tenuous travels of political and spiritual bodies across ambivalent sovereignties where Rondonia’s state prisons enter into extraordinary entanglement with Spiritualist traditions. Throughout the text, we explore the paradoxical ways that spiritual healing, including what I call ayahuasca’s medicine of death, is used to rehabilitate prisoners within a site of social death and as a means of remaking the deepening carceral project in Brazil. It spans a wide range of concepts and cosmologies, including mediumship (mediunidade), time, labor, ritual, control, power, sexuality, gender, race, and religion. It focuses particularly on the ayahuasca religions of Santo Daime and the Barquinha, the French-descended Spiritist tradition known as Kardecism, and the Afro-Brazilian-descended religion of Umbanda, which has emerged in Rondonia in a new form involving ayahuasca in a hybrid called Umbandaime. As a whole, the text explores how spiritualized rituals of labor confine the forces they seek to control so as to “heal” a social order whose will is to expand this work eternally.

Synthesis and characterization of ultra-incompressible superhard borides

Levine, Jonathan Benjamin University of California, Los Angeles 2008 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

The search for ultra-incompressible, superhard materials holds both scientific and practical interest due to their use as abrasives, cutting tools and coatings. The quest for such materials, however, rarely strays from high pressure synthetic methods, which require gigapascals of applied pressure. This dissertation illustrates how light elements can be incorporated into transition metals to replace weak metallic bonds with strong covalent bonds to improve a material's mechanical properties. By combining rhenium, a high valence electron density metal, with boron, a covalently bonding p-block element, we can synthesize rhenium diboride at ambient pressure. Hardness testing and scratches left on a diamond surface assert the superhard nature of ReB2. High pressure diffraction experiments indicate that ReB2 is ultra-incompressible and able to support a remarkably high differential stress. In an effort to understand the plastic response of ReB2, the indentation size effect observed in hardness measurements is analyzed within the context of conventional plasticity theories. The low load behavior of ReB2 is accurately described by a strain gradient plasticity model. The results suggest that the ability of ReB2 to scratch diamond is explained by its superhard nature at low loads. The anisotropic properties of ReB2 are studied using crystals prepared from a metal flux. Hardness testing indicates that the (002) plane possesses the highest hardness. The elastic anisotropy is determined using indentation moduli, confirming the hardness anisotropy. Electrical resistivity measurements demonstrate that ReB2 is the hardest metallic material. In an effort to increase the hardness via particle size effects nanocrystalline ReB2 was consolidated using spark plasma sintering. A linear correlation was found to exist between hardness and pellet density with a maximum predicted hardness of 56 GPa. The mechanical properties of ultra-incompressible hard borides, Ru 1-xOsxB2, are also studied. Bulk modulus and hardness vary linearly with composition, while the differing behavior among end-member can be explained by relativistic effects, core electron density, and differences in the cohesive energy of the parent metals. Finally, several projects are summarized that are predicted to form new superhard compounds: Tri-arc crystal growth of borides, ReB2-structured materials, metal tetraborides, and boron-rich crystals.

Dynamics of Earth's Hadley Circulation

Levine, Xavier J California Institute of Technology 2013 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

This thesis advances our understanding of the mechanisms controlling the Hadley circulation, and its interaction with eddies on planetary scales in particular. On Earth, and more generally in a rapidly rotating and differentially heated planet, planetary scale eddies in the extratropics interact with the mean flow in the tropics, contributing to the driving of the Hadley circulation. A hierarchy of numerical models is used to simulate and understand the relative importance of eddies in the driving of the Hadley circulation. In a global warming experiment, the Hadley circulation is found to strengthen in colder climates and weaken in warmer climates, with a maximum strength in a climate close to present-day Earth's. This nonmonotonicity is shown to be consistent with variations in the eddy activity in the midlatitudes. The cells are also found to widen over the entire range of this climate change. A criterion quantifying the importance of baroclinic waves in setting the depth of the troposphere, which is modified to account for the effect of convective adjustment on planetary Rossby waves activity, is used to explain the shifts in the terminus of the Hadley circulation for a wide range of climate scenarios. Additionally, by comparing simulations with and without ocean heat transport, it is shown that accounting for low-latitude ocean heat transport and its coupling to wind stress is essential to obtain Hadley circulations in a dynamical regime resembling Earth's. These changes in the strength and extent are found to be captured in a simple one-dimensional model that relies on standard assumptions about the thermodynamic properties of the atmosphere in the low-latitude regions and with a simple representation of eddy fluxes. Further work with this model, which may be amenable to analytical progress, could provide a quantitative understanding for the sensitivity of the Hadley circulation in comprehensive GCM simulations of 21st century global warming scenarios.

Environmental Influences on Sensory System Maturation: Effect of Enrichment on Binocular Matching in Mouse Primary Visual Cortex

Levine, Jared Northwestern University ProQuest Dissertations & T 2017 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

The form and function of neural circuits are shaped by experience during critical periods of development. Recently, our lab discovered an important outcome of critical period plasticity in the visual system, namely, binocular matching of orientation preference, whereby initially randomly aligned orientation preferences become matched in individual cells. Following this discovery, it remained unknown how this process took place, what the capacity was for matching following the critical period's close, and how the environment could influence the timing of the matching process. In Chapter 2, I show that three weeks of enriched environment (EE) is able to induce a full rescue of binocular matching following monocular deprivation spanning the entire critical period. Furthermore, using chronic, two-photon imaging I track individual cortical cells over time as they undergo this EE-induced matching process, yielding important insight into the synaptic mechanisms underlying the rescue. Finally, in Chapter 3, pursuant to a finding from our lab that EE induces precocious binocular matching during development, I use a combination of whole genome and single-gene approaches to identify genetic candidates with roles in structural and synaptic plasticity which may play a role precocious binocular matching. These findings lend insight into how the environment can influence the maturation of visual system function, and perhaps the function of sensory systems, generally.