楚亭 朴齊家ㆍ綸菴 李喜經의 도자 인식

方炳善(Bang Byung-sun) 한국미술사학회 2003 美術史學硏究 Vol.- No.237·238

Park Jae-ka (朴齊家, 1750-1805) and Lee Hee-kyung (李喜經, 1745-1805?) were the scholars of Northern Learning School. They proposed to enrich the nation and to secure the livelihood of people through the development of commerce and industry. They had the same thoughts on Chosun vessels. Through the journey to China, they witnessed the wide expansion of Chinese ceramic use and technical development of ceramic manufacturing. And they acknowledged the superiority of Japanese to Chosun in technology and manufacturing system. Comparing the technique of Chosun with the one of China and Japan, they pointed out problems of Chosun ceramic manufacturing technique and criticized the kiln operating system. They proposed an introduction of Chinese and Japanese techniques and technological policies. To have a correct point of view on their proposals and severe criticisms, we have to consider some matters. First, they neither spoke for all of the Chosun consumers nor fairly represented the style and technique of Chosun porcelain. It is because not only the self-examination which resulted from the study of Chosun porcelain, but also their preference for the foreign ceramics, provided the momentum of the proposals and criticism. Second, their technical records of Chosun porcelain were not free from mistakes because they didn't participate in making ceramics. We have to take into consideration what they pointed out; whether Chosun white clay, which is inferior to Chinese and Japanese clay on the whiteness and high fire resistance, is suitable to make ceramics similar to Chinese or Japanese ones: whether over-glaze decoration of porcelain was to our taste and Chinese style kiln was suitable to fire Chosun porcelain. Next, they hardly paid attention to the aesthetics and styles of the Chosun porcelain. Generally speaking, how to view the vessels can be changeable depending on the viewers and times. But not only technique but also style have to be considered to appreciate the ceramics simultaneously. Even though the manufacturing technique of ceramics was underdeveloped, we could not underestimate themselves. In spite of previous stated problems, their records have an art historical significance. Through them, we learned views of the Northern Learning School scholars on the contemporary Chosun, Chinese and Japanese ceramics and the technical problems of Chosun ceramics.

『하재일기(荷齋日記)』를 통해 본 조선 말기 분원

방병선 ( Byung Sun Bang ) 한국불교미술사학회(구 한국미술사연구소) 2010 강좌미술사 Vol.34 No.-

본 논문은 조선말기 분원공소의 공인이었던 지규식이 지은 『荷齋日記』를 통해 1891년에서 1910년까지 분원의 운영 변화와 제작 양상을 살펴보는 것을 목적으로 하였다. 먼저 19세기 도자 제작배경을 문헌 자료와 유물을 중심으로 고찰하고 하재일기의 내용을 분원 운영의 변화와 분원 제작으로 나누어 살펴보았다. 『하재일기』에는 이전에 밝혀지지 않았던 분원공소(1883-1896)와 번자회사(1897-1905), 번사회사(1906-1910) 등의 경영 구조와 진상의 문제점에 따른 경영악화 과정 등이 소상히 설명 되었다. 또한 다양한 진상기명과 시판된 그릇의 종류, 가격 등이 기록되어 당시의 상황을 재조명하는데 많은 도움을 준다. 그리고 해주 등의 외읍사기점과 일본 자기의 서울, 경기 지역 판매 저지 과정을 통해 분원이 시장 독점적 지위를 행사했음을 알 수 있다. 또한 서울 은곡가마와 일본인들의 분원 공장 설립, 양구 방산가마와의 협조, 각 장인들의 구체적 명단은 근대기 지방 가마와 장인 연구에 실마리를 제공하기 충분하다. 여기에 원료 산지와 일본 왜청 취급 가게 명칭, 분원에서의 각 작업 공정과 상회자기 성공 등의 희귀 정보는 『하재일기』의 도자사적 가치를 부각시키는데 결정적 역할을 하였다. This thesis examined the changes of Bunwon(分院) management and the production of ceramics from 1891 to 1910 based on the Hajae(荷齋)`s diary. First the production background of Chosun porcelain in the 19th century was investigated through the survey of documents and ceramics. And the Hajae(荷齋)`s diary was researched from the view of Bunwon operation and the manufacture of ceramics. The management of Bunwon tribute office(分院貢所: 1883-1896), the ceramic company(燔磁會社: 1897-1905) and the vessel company(燔砂會社: 1906-1910) and the problems of tribute were inquired. Various kinds of vessels and the sales items were also verified. Next, I discovered that ceramics from Haeju(海州) and other area kilns, and the Japanese wares were banned from sale in markets of Seoul and Gyunggi province. Because Bunwon had the monopoly for the compensation of tribute. And the establishment of Eungok(銀谷) kiln in Seoul, the Japanese potter`s activity in Bunwon, and the Bunwon`s cooperation with Bangsan(防山) kiln of Yanggu(楊口) were important news in this diary. Especially the list of potters of Bunwon and Japanese kilns could be a new momentum to study the potter`s life in that period. And the production sites of materials, stores of Japanese cobalt pigment, producing process of Bunwon wares, the first making of overglaze wares were available consequences from careful inspection of this diary. Finally it is clear from this brief research that Hajae(荷齋)`s diary is a valuable source of information for ceramic history.

명말청초(明末淸初) 중국(中國) 청화백자(靑花白瓷) 연구

방병선 ( Byung Sun Bang ) 한국불교미술사학회 2008 강좌미술사 Vol.30 No.-

나말여초 청자 제작과 전통기술

방병선(Bang, Byung-Sun) 한국고대학회 2009 先史와 古代 Vol.30 No.-

본고는 나말여초에 이루어진 대중도자교섭과 청자 발굴 성과 등을 바탕으로 발생 초기와 이후 변천 과정에서 나타는 고려청자 제작의 전통기술에 대해 고찰한 논문이다. 먼저 통일신라시대에는 왕궁과 주요 사지, 성지 등지에서 다양한 중국도자가 출토되어 다양한 수요층이 형성되었음을 알 수 있었다. 이러한 소비계층을 배경으로 중국장인의 기술지도에 의해 제작된 청자는 중국 남․북방 청자의 양식과 기술을 많이 참고하였다. 반면 통일신라시대 고화도 경질도기는 인공적인 시유 여부를 떠나 서남해안을 중심으로 강력한 도자 전통이 존재했음을 보여주었다. 다음으로 청자 제작 기술을 몇 가지로 분류하고 중국 도자 기술과의 비교, 고찰을 통해 전통 기술을 파악하였다. 먼저 가마 구조에서 진흙 가마는 측면 출입구 등 중국 청자 가마와 유사한 면을 부인하기 어렵지만 벽돌 가마를 제치고 조선시대까지 이어진 것은 한국적 전통의 하나로 고려하였다. 다음 나무 재를 사용한 유약은 고려 초기 “고칼슘 저규소” 성분이라는 중국 월주요 청자 유약 성분과 유사성을 띠지만 발색제와 발색 메카니즘은 중국 청자와 다른 것으로 고찰하였다. 구체적으로는 유약의 발색제 중 티타늄보다는 망간의 양이 더 많고, 얇은 유층과 적당한 기포 생성으로 태토가 은은히 들여다보이도록 한 것은 고려만의 특성으로 간주하였다. 또한 고려 초기 강진을 중심으로 행해지던 초벌구이 역시 중국과 다른 원료의 한계를 보완하기 위한 것으로 경제적 고비용에도 불구하고 고려 전 지역으로 퍼져 전통기술로 정착한 것으로 판단하였다. The purpose of this study is to examine the Korean traditional manufacturing technique of Koryo celadon during the period of the late Unified Silla and the early Koryo dynasty. First the imported Chinese wares were investigated to study the background of celadon production during the late Unified Silla and the early Koryo dynasty. During that period, various Chinese celadons and white wares such as Chinese Yue, Ding, Xing and Tongguan wares were excavated in the palace, temples and castles of Kyungju and other places in Korea. Owing to the sponsor of them, the Koryo celadon potters were supposed to be guided to copy the Chinese southern and northern ceramic style and technique by the Chinese potters. On the other hand, there was a strong tradition of Korean ceramic Producing techniques in the earthen ware kilns which especially located along the southern coast of Korean peninsula. Next the celadon producing techniques were classified into several types and surveyed to study the traditional ones. There were two kiln types-brick and clay-in Korea. A clay kiln which was primarily used in southern pant of Korea, different from Chinese brick one, became the prime kiln type of Koryo dynasty while it was rare in China. And the ash glaze of Koryo celadon was supposed to have the different mechanism of coloring from Chinese Yue wares even though their chemical composition were very similar in the high calcium and low silica structure. But Koryo celadon glaze contained more manganese than Chinese Sung celadon glaze which contained relatively more titanium. It would make the Koryo celadon glaze more greyish green than the Chinese one. The thin glaze and the proper number of bubbles in the Koryo celadon glaze made the day more visible than the Chinese celadon. So it could bring forth brilliant new color by the combination of reflecting color of the body and the glaze of celadon. Finally, the biscuit firing was done around the Gangjin kilns in the initial stage of Koryo dynasty. But it soon spreaded to the whole kils in Koryo because the Koryo potters might think that it would be very useful to strengthen the material's hardness in spite of the high cost. In conclusion, the clay kiln, the glaze coloring mechanism and the biscuit firing were developed as the Korean traditional techniques.

17세기 중국 무역도자 연구 -유럽과 동남아를 중심으로

방병선 ( Byung Sun Bang ) 한국불교미술사학회(구 한국미술사연구소) 2009 강좌미술사 Vol.33 No.-

羅末麗初 韓中陶瓷交流

방병선(Bang Byung-sun) 고려사학회 2006 한국사학보 Vol.- No.23

나말여초 한중 교류의 가장 큰 산물은 우리 땅에서 청자가 발생한 일이다. 본고에서는 나말여초 도자무역의 배경을 살펴보고 그 배경에 기여한 장보고의 존재 의의를 다시 짚어보았다. 또한 출토품을 중심으로 무역도자의 성격을 고찰하고 청자제작시기에 관한 제설들을 비교 · 고찰하였다. 장 보고는 해상무역 루트를 장악하고 개척함으로써 도자 무역의 기반을 닦아 놓았다. 또한 국내 출토 중국 그릇들을 고찰한 결과 경주 일대를 비롯하여 전국의 사지와 성 등에서 중국의 다양한 청자와 백자 등이 출토되어 당시 무역 도자의 성격을 알 수 있었다. 가장 큰 관심사인 청자 제작시기에 관해서는 기존에 발표된 국내외 제설들을 9세기와 10세기로 나누어 고찰하였다. 그 결과 현재로서는 우리나라와 중국에서의 발굴 자료와 편년 자료의 비교를 통해 중국측 자료들의 상당수가 五代에서 北宋에 걸친 편년을 가지고 있기 때문에 10세기설이 보다 타당하지 않을까 추정하였다. 또한 국내 청자제작의 선후 관계에서 생산 방식의 한국화 전개 방향과 상대적으로 문제점이나 의문점이 적은 것이 중부 지역에서 남부 지역으로의 이전이어서 이 경우 자연히 10세기 전반이나 중반이 더 탄력을 받을 수 있을 것으로 보았다. 그러나 아직 강진 일대의 발굴이 완벽하게 이루어지지 않은 상태이고 중국에서도 월주요 유적이 워낙 방대한데다 발굴 자체도 계속 진행되고 있어 논의의 결과는 가변적일 수밖에 없다. The monumental epoch of cultural exchange between Korea and China during the 9th and 10th century was the birth of Korean celadon. In this thesis, the background of ceramic trade in east asia and the beginning period of manufacturing Korean celadon were investigated. Firstly, the activity of the General Jang Bogo was examined. He supervised the trade between Korea and China from 820’s to 830’s. He was supposed to import the Chinese ceramics and influence the production of Korean ceramics. Secondly, it was confirmed that various Chinese ceramics were imported into the Korea during the 9th and 10th century. The celadons and white wares, made in the main Chinese kiln complexes, were excavated in the whole country such as Kyungju imperial site, temples and castles. That showed the characteristics of the imported Chinese ceramics at that time. Thirdly, several assumptions of the beginning period of manufacturing Korean celadon were studied. The 10th century was presumed more reasonable period through the comparison of the excavation objects and dated things of the Korean and Chinese kiln complex. Also the manufacturing of celadon was supposed to begin earlier in the central area of Korea rather than southern elsewhere.

고려청자의 중국 전래와 도자사적 영향

방병선 ( Byung Sun Bang ) 한국불교미술사학회(한국미술사연구소) 2013 강좌미술사 Vol.40 No.-

이 논문의 주제는 고려시대 중국에서 출토되거나 전세된 고려청자의 양상을 파악하는 것이다. 또한 중국인들이 고려청자에 대해 언급한 문헌자료를 검토하고 중국 청자에 나타난 고려청자의 영향을 살펴보는 것을 목적으로 하였다. 이를 통해 고려시대 중국과의 도자교류가 상호 양방향으로 이루어졌음을 입증하고자 하였다. 먼저 중국 출토 고려청자는 중국 남북방 전역의 유적에서 12-14세기 고려청자가 발견된 상황을 발굴보고서와 공사 기록들을 통해 정리하였다. 특히 봉래와 항주, 그 인근을 중심으로 송대보다는 남송과 원대 유적에서 더 많은 비색청자와 상감청자편들이 발견되었다. 문헌기록으로는 북송대 서긍의 『선화봉사고려도경』이나 남송의 『수중금』은 고려청자에 대한 기술과 평가에서 다른 것을 인정하거나 높게 평가하고 있음을 알 수 있다. 비록 원명대 이후 문헌에서 평가의 내용이 바뀌긴 했어도 원대 황제에게 금채청자가 상납될 정도로 중국 상류층 사이에서 고려청자의 위치는 상당한 고급품 혹은 사치품으로 인식되었음을 상기하였다. 중국청자에 미친 영향으로는 도자의 기술과 장식에서 여요의 비색인 청록색 유약을 예로 들었다. 여요의 유색은 중국 청자 유약 변천의 과정에서 설명하기 어려운 반면 『선화봉사고려도경』의 기록과 고려 비색청자의 유색 형성이 선행한 점을 들어 그 영향으로 제작되었을 가능성을 제시하였다. 또한 남송과 원대 유적지에서 많이 발견되는 고려상감청자의 상감 기법은 원대 용천요 청자묘지명 한 점의 예만 남아있어 영향 관계를 논하기 어려웠다. 결론적으로 중국 월주요에서 파생된 청자 제작기법과 장식은 중국과 고려 양국의 청자 발전 과정에서 새롭게 탄생하여 양국 도자 교류에서 다양한 양상을 보여주었다. 급증하는 중국내 고려청자 출토품과 문헌기록, 여요의 청록색 유색, 상감청자 기법의 시도 등은 양국의 도자 교류가 다양하고 복잡하며 일방통행이 아닌 상호교류적인 성격임을 제시하였다. This paper aims to research the Koryo celadons excavated or found in China and survey the Chinese documents contained the contents of Koryo celadons and prove the influence of Koryo celadon on the Chinese ceramics. Firstly, I classified and arranged the Koryo celadons excavated or found in the Northern and Southern China from the 12th to the 14th centuries. More shards of Koryo celadons, jade green and inlayed, were found near Hangzhou and Fenglai during the Southern Sung(1127-1279) and the Yuan(1279-1368) than Northern Sung. Secondly, I investigated some documents such as Xu Jing`s “Gaorituzing”(1123) and “Xuzungjin” in the Southern Sung and assessed that Koryo celadons were praised as the high quality ceramics by the Chinese consumers. Afterwards the gold-painted Koryo celadon was presented to the emperor of Yuan as tribute. Finally, I analyzed the influences of Koryo celadons on the Chinese ceramics and supposed that Northern Sung imperial Ru wares had the closest connection to Koryo jade green celadons. Because the blue green glaze of Ru ware appeared abruptly and there was no similar glaze color except Koryo mise celadon around the 12th century. And uncharacteristic attempt at some kind of inlay technique on a tomb tablet dated in accordance with 1250.

이형록(李亨祿)의 책가문방도 (冊架文房圖) 팔곡병(八曲屛)에 나타난 중국도자

방병선 ( Byung Sun Bang ) 한국불교미술사학회 ( 구 한국미술사연구소 ) 2007 강좌미술사 Vol.28 No.-

조선 후기 사기장인 연구

방병선(Bang Byung-sun) 한국미술사학회 2004 美術史學硏究 Vol.- No.241

Without a doubt, the white porcelain of the Chosun period has long been viewed as one of the best representative art forms in terms of beauty and aesthetics of the Chosun literati. We feel the dignified beauty of that artistic era that the Chosun literati pursued through its characteristic shape and simple design. This style of porcelain was produced by an official handcraft system throughout the entire Chosun dynasty. It began when an official kiln was established in Sawongwon (ie, "Palace Kitchen Management") during the 1460's. The production of ceramics was then supervised till 1884 by the royals who regarded the white porcelain as precious and important. Selected from around the country, 380 public potters were charged with the production of royal ceramics in the official kilin. They made the official royal vessels, while other unselected potters made a living by crafting private wares in each hometown and paying cloth taxes as duties. Both artisan classes, royal and common, had to perform their duties as craftsmen for generations. They could not change their jobs legally. Public potters were divided into several ranks according to their abilities and characteristics. The headmaster, called Pyunsoo (邊首). was selected from the potters to supervise the production and supply of the royal vessels. But, by the end of the 19th century, some merchants became Pyunsoo. As a result, the Pyunsoo and potters made not only royal wares but also commercial ones. Unfortunately, there are scarce records about these individuals except for the name of some Pyunsoo from the late 19th century. Chosun potters who were low in social rank could not leave their names like a Japanese craftsman neither do business well like a Chinese potter. Summoned by the country, they did their best yet suffered from severe hardships. They did their best when firing only one humble bowl on an unknown mountainside. They also tried to make simple and noble vessels exhibiting the spirit of royals and literatie. For them, it was more valuable and important than making just commercial skilled wares. The details which were surveyed could be chronologically summarized as follows: In the 17th century, the reform of the official kilns was accomplished in spite of successive invasions by Japan and Manchuria. Exclusive employment of potters and the permission of private firing of Punwon potters was executed. Potters overcame economic hardships owing to the patronage of royals and officers who encouraged and took care of them. After the 18th century, commercial and decorative vessels became popular. Potters endeavored to improve their techniques for profitable manufacturing. Influenced by an economic boom, pottery shops also appeared. In addition, painting potters began to work at official kilns owing to the flourish of blue-and-white porcelain. In the latter half of the 18th century, private firing increased as the consumers ceramics market expanded. But these expansions in private firing did not lead to an increase in potter' income. On the contrary, an increase in the amount of work painfully burdened them more so than before. In 19th century, the operation of Punwon became more difficult due to greater orders of extra fired ceramics and the wide-spread presence of intermediary exploitation. The financial troubles of the government made the financing of the Punwon difficult as time went by. Eventually, Punwon became privatized in 1884. Sawongwon entrusted 12 dealers with the right of conducting tributes. So, the official handcraft system was finally changed to a civilian one.

청대 중서(中西) 도자 교류의 표상, 광채(廣彩)

방병선(Bang Byung-sun) 한국근현대미술사학회 2015 한국근현대미술사학 Vol.29 No.-

The purpose of this research is to examine the origin, production technology and stylistic development of Guangcai, produced in Guangdong, China through the 18th and 19th Century. Through the analysis of related literature sources, existent works and excavation reports, it was able to define Guangcai as the fruit of cultural interaction of East and West. Thus, Guangcai itself worth demonstrating aesthetic value. First of all, the background of Guangcai production was examined through the Thirteen Factories, monopolistic trade system and Guangzhou as the most important trading port. Besides, exotic craftswork such as painting, furniture were widely produced from Guangzhou for exports. Guangdong area was also known for its long history of porcelain making including Shiwan(石?) Kiln, gives strong base for successful Guangcai production. The production of Guangcai emerged when the painting skills and styles of enamel on copper were developed during the Kangxi period. Its technology was introduced in the late Kangxi’s(1661-1722) reign from Europe and this was base for producing enamel ware for the Qing court. Prior to this, wucai pigment was difficult to make various color scheme, because addition of metal oxide coloring caused low plasticity. Guangcai is based on enamel pigment which is made of silicon and lead oxide combined with glass solution and addition of metal oxide coloring. After these elements were melted and cooled down, it was grinded to powder which made possible to make various color. Thus, the addition of new colors, high plasticity and control of pigment color made it suitable for export. Guangcai is technically and stylistically distinct from Wucai, Fencai, and Yangcai but similar to Yangcai in terms of shading, perspective and decorating subject. In fact, it is also classified as Fencai as it was mostly produced by folk kiln. However, it is to note that green, yellow and gold dominates the Guangcai plate and using oil instead of water to give shading is the unique characteristic of Guangcai. It is mostly decorated with the traditional features as well as Western figures and coat of arms and Guangdong landscape, demonstrating hybrid of East and West. Kangxi(1722-1735) to Qianlong(1735-1795) reign was the zenith of the production. In 19th century the production decreased but consistently exported to Europe and affected porcelain industry in China. The traditional craftsmanship carried throughout the Republican period with the further attempts of the literati’s painting on porcelain.