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조선 15~16세기 內需司의 왕실 관련 銘文磁器 생산과 한계
김귀한(Kim, Kwi-Han) 중앙문화재연구원 2021 중앙고고연구 Vol.- No.35
이 글은 문헌과 물질자료를 통해 15~16세기 내수사(內需司)의 왕실 관련 명문자기(銘文磁器) 생산과 한계를 검토하는 데 목적이 있다. 1467년경 왕실 소용의 그릇은 사옹원(司饔院)의 분원(分院) 인 관요(官窯)와 내수사에 의해 이원적(二元的)으로 공급되었다. 왕실에서 소비하는 자기 가운데‘국용(國用)’은 관요에서, ‘내용(內用)’은 내수사에서 생산하였다. 하지만 언제 어떠한 이유로 내수사에서 왕실 관련 명문자기를 제작하였는지, 왜 내수사의 제자(製磁) 활동이 중지되었는지에 대한관심은 부족하였다. 백자는 세종대 어기(御器)로 사용되기 시작하였다. 세조대는 그 수요가 한층 증대되었다. 백자의소비가 늘어나는 상황에서 1464년 횡간(橫看)이 제정되었고, 1465년 공안(貢案)이 개정되었다. 왕실은 이전에 비해 사적으로 사용하는 그릇을 안정적으로 확보하기 어려운 상황에 놓였을 것이다. 이에 따라 1464년경 내수사에 사기장을 두고 ‘大’·‘中’·‘世’·‘處’명 자기를 생산한 것으로 추정된다. 그러나 내수사는 사기장 6명만 소속되었다. 백토(白土)나 시지(柴地) 등도 공급받지 못하여 백자 소비 확대에 탄력적으로 대응하기는 한계가 있었다. 16세기 왕실의 재정 수요는 증가하였다. 그러나 왕실 관련 명문자기는 15세기 후반에 집중적으로제작된 이후 생산 수량이 감소하였다. 이는 1501년 신유공안(辛酉貢案) 가행조례(可行條例)에 보이는 전용(轉用)과 가정(加定)의 영향으로 생각된다. 왕실은 늦어도 1490년경부터 사옹원의 백자를내용으로 사용하기 시작한 것으로 추측된다. 이러한 흐름은 1501년 신유공안 제정을 기점으로 일반화되었다. 왕실은 1501년 이후 감결(甘結)을 통해 사옹원의 물품을 공급받았다. 15세기 말~16세기초 관요는 체제가 안정되면서 왕실의 백자 수요를 충족시킬 수 있는 여건이 마련되었다. 내수사 사기장의 역할은 점차 축소되었던 것으로 생각된다. 내수사는 1460년대 왕실 내 백자의 사적 수요를 담당하기 위해 요업 활동을 시작하였다. 그러나신유공안의 가행조례가 적용된 1501년을 중심으로 한 15세기 말~16세기 초 내수사에 의한 자기 번조는 정지된 것으로 보인다. 내수사와 사옹원에 의한 이원적 백자 공급 체제는 사옹원으로 일원화된것으로 판단된다. By around 1467, the white porcelain used by the royalty was supplied both by Gwanyo(官窯) which were branches(分院) of the Saongwon(司饔院) and Naesusa(內需司). The items for national use(國用) were produced by Gwanyo, and those for internal use(內用) by Naesusa. White porcelain was selected for King Sejong’s bowl(御器), which is why its demand soared. However, after Hweng’gan(橫看) was enacted in 1464, and as the Gong’an (貢案) was revised in 1465, it became more difficult to reliably obtain white porcelain for the royalty’s personal use. Following this, it is estimated that in 1464, Porcelain with Inscription (銘文磁器) were produced potters who belonged to Naesusa Only six Potters belonged to Naesusa, and because they were not provided with white clay (白土) and Siji (柴地), there were limitations in being able to respond flexibly to the rising demand for white porcelain. The production volume for prestigious porcelains for royals declined after peaking in the late 15th century. This is believed to have been influenced by the Junyong (轉用) and Gajung (加定), found in the government’s fiscal reform measures called Sinyugong’an (辛酉貢案) Gahaengjoriae (可行條例) of 1501. The royalty was supplied with white porcelain for internal use by the Saongwon, before and after 1501. At the time, Gwanyo had been stabilized in its structure, available to meet the royals’ demand for white porcelain. This is believed to have gradually diminished the role of Naesusa’s Potter. As a result, it is supposed that between the end of the 15th century and beginning of the 16th century, the dual white porcelain production by both Naesusa and Saongwon was consolidated by the Saongwon
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시판 정치배양 현미식초의 유리아미노산 및 휘발성 향기성분 특성 분석
김귀란(Gui Ran Kim),윤성란(Sung Ran Yoon),이수원(Su Won Lee),정미선(Mi Seon Jeong),곽지영(Ji Young Kwak),정용진(Yong Jin Jeong),여수환(Soo Hwan Yeo),권중호(Joong Ho Kwon) 한국식품저장유통학회 2011 Food Science and Preservation Vol.18 No.5
This study was performed to evaluate the quality of the commercial brown-rice vinegars of South Korean and Japanese origins, which were prepared via static acetic-acid fermentation. The major free amino acids of Korean brown-rice vinegars were proline, glutamic acid and phenylalanine, while those of the Japanese were proline, valine, phenylalanine, lysine, γ-aminobutyric acid, alanine and isoleucine. The γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and total amino acids (3686.37~4212.27 mg%) contents were found to be significantly higher in the Japanese than in the Korean brown-rice vinegars. The key volatile compounds of the Korean brown-rice vinegars, analyzed with GC-MS, were acetic acid, benzaldehyde, phenethyl alcohol and phenethyl acetate while those of the Japanese brown-rice vinegars were acetic acid, ethyl acetate, ethyl alcohol, isoamyl acetate, phenethyl acetate and benzaldehyde. The volatile patterns of the Korean and Japanese commercial brown-rice vinegars were effectively distinguished from each other using an electronic nose, through which it was also elucidated that the volatiles profiles were similar among the Japanese vinegars but were different among the Korean vinegars.
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김귀한 ( Kim¸ Kwihan ) 단국사학회 2020 史學志 Vol.60 No.-
This paper describes the increase in consumption of white porcelain based on the elevation of its status from the late Goryeo to the early Joseon period. Celadon was the most important type of porcelain from the late Goryeo to early Joseon era. In comparison, white porcelain, which registered lower qualities than celadon, failed to draw consumers' attention. In the 1410s and 1420s, celadon became increasingly more decorated, sometimes with patterns that covered the ware’s entire surface. White porcelain was usually produced in small volumes in areas storing white clay (白土). Moreover, its quality had not improved from the late Goryeo period. In the early Joseon era, the kingdom continuously strived to secure gold and silver to give as tributes (進貢) to the Ming Empire. To exempt itself from having to give away gold and silver (免貢), the Joseon kingdom stressed that these metals were not produced in Joseon. Fortunately, gold and silver were delisted, after which King Sejong had to reassure (宣傳) the Ming diplomats that his country was no longer consuming the material, even though the Joseon court continued their usage. At the same time, there was keen awareness of the need to find substitutes (代替財) for gold and silver ware as they were the topmost in the contemporary hierarchy (位階) of precious metals. Hence, a substitute had to be made of material of equal status as gold and silver or immediately below them. The King Sejong era saw an increase in imports of Chinese white porcelain, including the blue and white porcelain given by the Xuande Emperor (宣德帝) of Ming. Given the relationship between the Joseon and Ming dynasties, the gifts (頒賜品) from the Xuande Emperor were likely to symbolize the king's authority. To King Sejong, the gifts from the Xuande Emperor not only symbolized his authority but also served as a practical means to profit from the diplomatic relationship with Ming. Thus King Sejong chose white porcelain as royal ware (御器). King Sejong’s choice of white porcelain as royal ware changed the ruling class's perception of it, boosting its status. Demand for white porcelain increased as people wanted ware made of the same material used by the monarch. In line with these developments, hard white porcelain (硬質白磁) began to be produced in the 1430s, and eventually white porcelain of excellent quality was produced in the 1440s.
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