조선초기 문신 姜希孟의 관직생활

강제훈(Kang Jae-hoon) 한국인물사연구소 2008 한국인물사연구 Vol.9 No.-

This study aimed at looking into Kang Hui-maeing's office life for the understanding of the early Joseon society dominated by yangban(two upper classes). Through reviewing on his life we can interpret constant factors to make his way in office life in Joseon as well as variable ones. He was out of top drawer, a nephew of King Sejong's wife and got the first position in the civil service examination come up 1447, King Sejong's 29th year. He enjoyed a success career during King Sejo's ruling period(1455~1468) and reached the peak point when King Seongjong rose. He started office life in 24 years old and got a dangsanggwan position, the major third rank, 10 years later. He took office as the minister of the Ceremonies Board in 1466, King Sejo's 12th ruling year. He died at 1483 with two titles as a meritorious retainers without taking the position for state councilor. Key point of his success was to have taken good results, ranked the first class, in the successive two tests by King Sejo for inservice officers. This enabled hime to get dangsoangwan and panseo post. He was a ceremony and writing expert whom the dynasty need for establishing confucian state and keeping stable relations with Ming China. He went through almost all posts in the Ceremonies Board from jwarang(assistant section chief) to panseo (Minister). He had his son got to married to a grand daughter of Sin Sukju, first class meritorious retainer. It helped him to get the meritorious title. He participated in discussion sessions with the king Seong Jong as a Gyeongyeongwan holding additional posts and meritorious retainer. Seongjong left his first son who acceded to the throne later in Kang's care for several years and nominated him for Yijo-panseo positon, Minister of Personnel. His success story shows that in Joseon society a person could not success depending solely on one's family. For successful office life it requires to be a fine writer and to get a special status like a meritorious title.

조선 초기 俗祭 祭祀床의 구성과 그 특징

강제훈(Kang, Jae-Hoon) 고려사학회 2015 한국사학보 Vol.- No.60

조선에서는 장기간에 걸쳐 유교적 조상 의례를 정비하였고, 『국조오례의』는 그러한 작업의 결과였다. 『국조오례의』에는 정식의 유교 제사인 종묘 외에도, 유교 제사의 범주에 포함되지만, 종묘와는 구분하여 俗祭로 분류한 제사가 있었다. 文昭殿과 眞殿, 山陵이 그것인데, 각각 位牌와 御眞, 體魄을 모신 공간이었고, 신주를 세워서 제사하는 종묘와는 구분되었다. 이들은 제사 의식이 종묘와 다르게 설정되었지만, 무엇보다 신과 소통하는 매개물인 제수에서 뚜렷하게 구분되는 특징이 있었다. 이 글은 속제의 제사상 구성을 분석하여 조선에서 시도된 유교적 의례 정비의 특색을 밝히고자 하였다. 종묘의 제사상이 일상적인 음식을 배제하고 철저하게 규정된 제수를 사용한 반면, 속제의 제사상은 일상의 잔치나 외국 사신 접대 등에 동일하게 사용되는 것이었다. 속제의 제사상은 본래는 흉례의 혼전과 산릉에 사용되었던 것이 각각 길례의 원묘와 산릉으로 계승되어 사용되었다. 원묘에서는 生時와 같이 섬긴다는 원칙에 의해 평소 즐기던 肉饍을 사용하고, 산릉에서는 이를 배제하여 제사상이 구성되었다. 이런 차이에도 불구하고 속제의 제사상은 대개는 찬탁과 협탁으로 동일하게 구성되었다. 찬탁은 유밀과를 사용하여 4행으로 구성되는 상이었고, 찬탁은 식용을 목적으로 마련된 면이나 탕등을 올리는 상이었다. 원묘의 제사상에 肉饍을 더하는 결정은 속제라는 범주의 제사상에 유밀과를 공통으로 하는 보편성과 함께 평시의 식성을 고려하여 祭需를 다양하게 만들 수 있는 가능성을 열게 하였다. 속제의 제사상 규정은 종합적으로 해석할 때, 조선에서 유교 국가로의 전환이 전통을 계승하면서 현실의 다양성과 유교적 엄밀성을 동시에 추구하면서 이루어졌음을 보여주는 것이다. The 〈Five Rites of State (Gukjo oryeui)〉 was the result of the Confucianism-based ancestral rites established by Joseon over a long period of time. The 〈Five Rites of State〉 included the local ancestral rituals (sokje) spun off from the official Confucian rites conducted at the Royal Ancestral Shrine (jongmyo). The local ancestral rituals (sokje) included those at the Munso royal shrine (Munsojeon), royal portrait halls (jinjeon), and royal tombs (sanneung). These were spaces in which memorial tablets (wipae), royal portraits (eojin) and corpses (chebaek) separated from the Royal Ancestral Shrine were enshrined so that ritual ceremonies could be conducted in front of the ancestral tablet (sinju). The local ancestral rituals were somewhat different from those conducted at the Royal Ancestral Shrine. In particular, ritual food (jesu) was served as a vehicle through which to communicate with the gods. This study focuses on the characteristics of the Confucian ancestral ritual system implemented in Joseon based on an analysis of the composition of the food table set up for local ancestral rituals. The ritual table for the Royal Ancestral shrine was meticulously prepared based on specifically designated foods other than everyday foods. Meanwhile, the food table used for local ancestral rituals was akin to those used for regular banquets and during receptions for foreign envoys. The food table for local ancestral rituals was originally used at the spirit hall (honjeon) during the funeral process as well as at the royal tombs. However, this was eventually extended to include the Royal’s Private Ancestral Shrine (wonmyo) and royal tombs used during auspicious rites (gilye) designed to worship heaven, earth, famous mountains and long rivers. In accordance with the principle of enshrining the deceased as if they were still alive, the meat dishes said to be enjoyed by the deceased were served on the food table during the ceremonies at the Royal’s Private Ancestral Shrine (wonmyo). On the other hand, the food table for royal tombs excluded meat dishes. Despite these differences, the food table for local ancestral rituals generally consisted of chantak and hyeoptak. Chantak referred to a food table based on four rows of oil-and-honey pastry while hyeoptak indicated a food table that revolved around noodles and soup prepared for consumption. The decision to add meat dishes to the food table for the rituals at the Royal’s Private Ancestral Shrine opened up the possibility of diversifying the sorts of ritual foods to include those used in local ancestral rituals that included not only the universal oil-and-honey pastry but also deceased’s favorite foods. A comprehensive interpretation of the food regulations associated with local ancestral ritual imply that the transformation of Joseon into a Confucian state was carried out based on a combination of the inheritance of tradition, actual variations, and Confucian rigidity.

조선 왕릉과 왕릉 의례의 특징

강제훈(Kang, Jae-hoon) 고려사학회 2014 한국사학보 Vol.- No.54

It is said that each royal tomb in Joseon was made with great devotion in considering geomantic principles and strictly observing Confucian etiquette. This article pays attention to Neo-Confucian influences. Fengshui (geomantic idea) in Joseon was different from that of Goryeo. Whereas in Goryeo Fengshui was applied to choices of dwelling places and cities, it was applied to tombs in Joseon. Royal tombs in Joseon represent the beginning of the application of Fengshui to tombs and display the way of its application. The main reason why Fengshui could be applied in the Neo-Confucian society of Joseon was that the both ideas shared the theory of 同氣感應(the same force works). A union of light force and dark force constitutes a human being, and parents and children have the same force. Death means that force gets scattered and returns to the nature. The rituals for ancestors were believed to be means for the children to recall the force of the parents that are assimilated to the nature, and to get the children themselves assimilated to the nature. Fengshui shares with Neo-Confucianism the idea that dead parents may exercise influence on their children because they have the same force. In royal tombs of Joseon forces give and get influences through ceremonies. Royal tombs in Joseon had a ceremonial pavilion and wide space before it. That was the place where ceremonies for the buried were held. In Goryeo Buddhist ceremonies were important. In those ceremonies Buddha was honored and Buddhist monks presided the ceremony. The king was a mere participant. In ceremonies at royal tombs in Joseon the king presided the ceremony, and the dead king and queen were honored. Joseon became a Confucian society from a Buddhist society of Goryeo. Royal tombs in Josen symbolize the Confucian changeover. They were the space for the living people for doing Confucian ceremonies.

조선 세조대의 勳臣 具致寬의 관직 생활과 특징

강제훈(Kang, Jae-Hoon) 고려사학회 2017 한국사학보 Vol.- No.69

조선 세종조의 國家禮 정비와 五禮의 성립

강제훈(Kang, Jae Hoon) 고려사학회 2021 한국사학보 Vol.- No.82

이글은 『세종실록』에 수록된 「오례」가 조선 최초의 국가례 편찬물이라는 점에 주목하여 해당 편찬물이 작성될 수 있었던 배경과 특징에 대해 검토한 것이다. 이글에서는 유교적 의례의 정비는 오랜 관습이었던 불교적 생활 관습을 대체하는 목적을 두고 있다는 점을 지적하고, 恒産을 확보하여 恒心을 갖게 한다는 유교적 명제가 세종 시대에 의례의 정비를 통해서 시도되었음을 검토하였다. 민간례와 달리 국가례는 길・흉・군・빈・가례로 범주화된다. 『세종실록』에는 300여 개의 의주가 수록되어 있는데, 유교 의례를 시행하기 위해 이 정도로 많은 의식에 대한 구체적인 검토가 이루어졌음을 보여준다. 『세종실록』의 「오례」는 직접적으로는 세종 26년 국왕의 지시로 정리 작업이 진행되었지만, 저변에 세종 치세 전 기간에 걸친 다양한 의주의 작성과 의례에 대한 검토가 축적되어 있었기 때문에, 국가례로서 오례가 정리될 수 있었다. 이글에서 주요 개념어로서 동시대의 명나라 예제를 時制, 당・송의 제도를 古制, 조선의 습속을 本俗으로 설정하고, 의례 정비의 지향은 최종적으로 유교적 본속을 확립해 가는 과정이었다고 해석하였다. 조선은 명과의 관계에서 명을 時王으로 인정하였다. 이에 준하여 시제를 수용할 적극적인 의사가 있었지만, 명에서 예제를 공개하지 않는 국제적 환경이 조성되었다. 이러한 조건에서 조선 나름의 유교 예제를 추구하였다. 여전히 조선은 시제를 반영하고자 하였지만, 궁여지책으로 당・송의 고제를 능동적으로 참조하였고, 조선 고유의 습속도 유교적 본속을 만들어가는 과정에서 적극 반영하였다. 태종대에는 시제를 주로 채용하고자 하였지만, 시제의 세부사항을 알 수 없는 조건에서 세종 초기에는 당・송의 고제를 전반적인 의례 정비에 원용하게 되었다. 예제에 대한 이해가 심화하면서, 조선 나름의 의례 운영 원리를 마련하게 되었고, 세종 중기부터는 조선 나름의 유교적 본속을 점차 갖추게 됐다. 드디어 세종 후기에 독자적인 오례를 정리하는 작업을 시도하게 되었다. 이렇게 하여 작성된 『세종실록』 「오례」는 미완의 작업이기는 하였지만, 향후 『국조오례의』로 귀결되는 의례 정리 작업의 실제적인 배경이 되었음을 주목하였다. In this paper, the rite system of the Ming Dynasty was conceptualized as the contemporary system, the rite system of the Tang and Song Dynasty as the ancient system, and the customs of Joseon as the regional system. It was interpreted that the purpose of establishment of Confucian rite system in Joseon was to create a Confucian regional system. In Joseon, the emperor of Ming China was recognized as the king of the present era who was ordered by heaven as Confucianism says. Therefore, they wanted to accept Ming China’s ritual system if possible. However, Ming China did not disclose the rite system to Joseon, and recommended that Joseon follow the local system. In Joseon, a long-time Buddhist country, there was virtually no Confucian regional system. Joseon established its own state rite system by referring to the ancient systems of the Tang and Song. Joseon had to make a new rite system for kingdom because all the system of Confucian-style state rite that could be referenced were for the Empire and there were no ones for the Kingdom. The five-categorized rituals were included as an appendix in the Annals of King Sejong. This was the first compilation of Confucianstyle state rite of Joseon. This record was incomplete, but it reflects the achievements of creating a confucian regional system that had been steadily implemented in Joseon. Based on this, Joseon completed more sophisticated five categorized rituals. This was the first example of a Confucian state rite system for the kingdom. Through this, Joseon took a new step toward transforming itself into a Confucian state.

조선초기 전세제 개혁과 그 성격

강제훈 ( Jae Hoon Kang ) 조선시대사학회 2001 朝鮮時代史學報 Vol.19 No.-

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조선 중엽 金萬鎰의 獻馬 업적과 관직 제수

강제훈(Kang, Jae-hoon) 호서사학회 2014 역사와 담론 Vol.0 No.70

조선전기 국왕 儀仗制度의 정비와 상징

강제훈 ( Jae Hoon Kang ) 고려대학교 역사연구소 2012 사총 Vol.77 No.-

Ceremonial objects symbolize kings apart from subjects. In the West a single symbolic icon was used, but in the East Asia more icons were used for higer-ranked figures. Ceremonial objects for queens and princes were only parts of the ceremonial objects used for kings. This article examines the ceremonial objects used in National ceremonies held at the courtyard of the palace. In accordance with the general rules in the Confucian countries, ceremonial objects used in the royal processions were distinguished from those used in the courtyard ceremonies in Joseon. The special feature in Joseon was that they made the items in the two sets of ceremonial objects identical. The biggest set of ceremonial objects remained constitutively unchanged in Joseon. But the size of the ceremonial objects was made to differ depending on the ceremonies. Ceremonial objects were placed on the upper and lower podium in front of Geunjeongjeon at first, but the placement was expanded to the courtyard in Sejong`s reign. And the number of items was adjusted into three tiers. At the same time, ceremonial obejcts at the processions were also divided into three tiers, and the number of items was adjusted accordingly. Sejo made the items of the 3-tiered ceremonial objects at the ceremonies identical with those at the processions. By having the same constitutive items and the same tier structure of the ceremonial objects at the ceremonies and at the processions, they secured the consistency of the symbols and enhanced the convenience of the officials who supervised the ceremonial objects.

조선초기의 정치과 왕권 : 조선 세조대의 조회와 왕권

강제훈 ( Jae Hoon Kang ) 고려대학교 역사연구소 2005 사총 Vol.61 No.-

The Kingship and Establishment of the Chohoe System in Early Chosŏn

Kang Jae-hoon(강제훈) 고려대학교 한국사연구소 2005 International Journal of Korean History Vol.9 No.-