書院의 祠廟成立過程에 關한 考察

宋楊燮 春川敎育大學 1989 論文集 Vol.29 No.-

1888년 영해부 호구분쟁에 나타난 戶政運營의 일단-호적색 윤일찬의 ‘捧賂減戶’에 대한 마을민의 등소 사례-

송양섭 조선시대사학회 2017 朝鮮時代史學報 Vol.- No.82

This article is an investigation on specific reality of Ho-gu(population register) management operated on the independent territory of Kun-hyŏn, through the case of Ho-gu dispute at Yŏnghae-bu, Kyŏngsang-do in 1888. This dispute was triggered when Yun Ilch’an, the Hojŏksaek(a lower official in charge of population register), manipulated the number of registered town population after being bribed. People of Yŏnghae-bu organized 10 times of Dŭngso(accusation) movement. As this affair was not a moral deviation of an individual, but a revelation of structural contradiction in the Ho-gu management of the dynasty, the affair applies to the matter of Ch'ukho (Reducing the size of registered population), one of the debated issues on the Ho-gu management at the time, with Pyŏngho, Hyŏpho, T'arho, and Luho. Ch’oho and Ip-ho(selecting and forming a basic unit of population register) to revise a population register was completed through the process of quantitative selection and qualitative organization on the natural family unit of Ka-ho, with the compromise between the official and the people. This Ho-gu dispute in Yŏnghae-bu symbolically shows what happens when there is no appropriate persuasion and compromise between the official and the people in the process of revising population register. The principle of partial registration(Kwanbŏp) with the ideal of total registration(Haekpŏp) can be switched to the execution of total registration within the custom of partial registration at any time, causing the aggressive collection of population register, and if it exceeds the critical point, this brought out the resistance in the form of accusation on the official or the riot. The independent political nature of the local Ho-gu management intensified its contradiction per se, leading to the prospect on the new institutional change. From the point that Ho-gu dispute in Yŏnghae-bu shows how the contradiction in the population register and its management is displayed vividly, it can be regarded as an important case through which one can peek the actuality of the Ho-gu management in Chosŏn dynasty. 이 글은 1888년 경상도 영해부 호구분쟁을 사례를 통해 군현내부의 독자적 영역에서 이루어지는 호구운영의 구체적인 실태를 살핀 것이다. 호적색 윤일찬이 돈을 받고 호구수를 조작한 데서 시작된 분쟁으로 영해부민들은 전후 10차례의 등소운동을 전개하였다. 이 사건은 일개 호적색의 도덕적 일탈이 아닌 왕조 호구운영의 구조적 모순이 발현된 것으로 당시 향촌사회의 호구운영에서 幷戶․挾戶․頉戶․漏戶 등과 함께 거론되는 縮戶의 문제였다. 戶籍改修를 위한 抄戶와 立戶는 自然家戶에 대한 모종의 量的 抄定과 質的 編制의 과정을 거쳐 관민간의 타협을 통해 이루어졌다. 영해부의 호구분쟁은 호적개수 과정에 관민 상호간의 설득과 타협이 제대로 이루어지지 않았을 경우 어떠한 일이 벌어지는지 상징적으로 보여준다. 왕조의 핵법적 관법은 군현 내에서 언제라도 관법적 핵법으로 전화되어 공세적 호구수괄을 불러올 수 있었고 이것이 임계점을 넘을 경우 등소나 민란과 같은 형태의 저항을 가져왔다. 지역 차원 호구운영이 가진 독자적 정치성은 점차 자체의 모순을 격화시켜 새로운 제도적 변혁을 전망하는 데까지 다가가고 있었다.

반계 유형원의 관제개편 구상

송양섭 조선시대사학회 2018 朝鮮時代史學報 Vol.- No.86

조선왕조의 官制는 유형원 개혁안의 유기적 구성이자 국가의 공적 통치기구로서 중요한 의미를 가지고 있었다. 유형원은 우선 문․무반 품계를 통합, 통일성을 부여함으로써 체계적인 업무수행과 효율적인 인사운영의 전제로 삼고자 했다. 직임자는 업무를 전담하여 권한과 책임을 분명히 함으로써 각자의 능력을 극대화하고 업무상의 혼선을 방지하는데 주안점이 두어졌다. 겸직․체아직․임시관서는 허용되지 않았고 직사가 없는 종친․의빈․공신 등에 대해서는 관직을 부여하지 않도록 했다. 이는 소모적이고 산만하게 운영되어 왔던 관서와 관직체계를 직사를 중심으로 재편하고 이를 바탕으로 행정비용을 절감하는 한편 부서별․직임별 업무에 대한 완결성을 높이기 위한 방안이었다. 행정체계의 전면적인 조정도 가해졌다. 비변사를 혁파하고 의정부의 기능을 회복한 후, 예하의 6조를 총괄하도록 하였다. 아울러 대부분의 관서를 6조 예하에 편성시켜 부문별 일원적 행정체계를 구축하도록 하였다. 이를 바탕으로 관서․기구에 대한 대대적인 통폐합이 이루어졌다. 왕실관련 기구와 각종 예우아문의 대대적인 축소와 통폐합을 통해 국왕의 공적 위상을 높이는 한편 사헌부의 감찰기능 축소, 삼사의 언론독점 폐지 등 사법․문한 관련 관서의 기능의 조정이 이루어졌다. 기타 불필요한 관서․기구․제도 등을 없애고 그 기능을 타 관서에 이관․분산시키도록 하였다. 관제 개혁을 추진한 위에 행정실무와 사역에 종사하는 녹사․서리․조예․소사 등의 인력에 대해서도 직임별 정원과 임무가 구체적으로 정해졌다. 중앙 각급기관의 이예는 정원을 반 가까이 줄인 후 소속 장관이 선발하여 쓰고 이조가 총괄하도록 하였다. 지방의 경우에도 대대적인 군현제 개편과 병행하여 각급기관․기구의 성격에 따라 서리․조예․소사의 정원과 임무를 구체적으로 정하였다. 또한 고립제의 추세를 적극적으로 받아들여 중앙과 지방 이예에 대한 적정의 녹봉과 공전을 분급하여 처우를 개선함으로써 직무에 대한 책임감과 효율을 높이는 바탕을 삼도록 하였다. Governmental Organization played the pivotal role in Yu Hyŏngwŏn’s state management system and organic composition. First, by merging the rank system of Civil and Military officials and granting the uniformity, Yu Hyŏngwŏn intended to make it a preposition of efficient personnel management and systematic task performance. In this plan, the appointed took the full charge of his task, and by making his authority and responsibility clear, Yu expected the performance of each posts to be maximized while the interference in tasks to be prevented. Concurrent positions, Ch’eajik (遞兒職; sinecures with rotated shifts), and temporary positions were not allowed in this plan, and the members of the royal family, sons-in-law of the kings, and the merit subjects would not be allowed any official positions. This was a plan to achieve the completion on tasks of each bureaus and positions, as well as to reduce the administrative costs by re-organizing the bureaus and the governmental posts based on their roles. In addition, there was overall modification of the administrative system. Pibyŏnsa (備邊司; Border Defense Council) might be abolished, and Ŭijŏngbu (議政府; State Council) may recover its function to direct its Six subordinate Ministries. Moreover, most of the governmental offices were to be organized under the Six Ministries and commanded by those, which made unitary administrative system in each branches. With this, many governmental offices and organizations were merged on a large scale. Organizations regarding the royal family and public offices of respectful treatments were diminished and merged to increase the public stature of the king, while the functions of the offices regarding jurisdiction and official documents were modified, such as reducing the inspecting function of Sahŏnbu (司憲府; Office of the Inspector-General) and abolishing the exclusive right of speech of Sam-sa (三司; three censoring organs). Other unnecessary offices, organizations, and systems were to be abolished and their functions would be moved or spread to other organizations. After the reformation of governmental organization, quota and tasks of personnel who served administrative practices and duties, such as Noksa (錄事; Chief Clerks), Sŏri (胥吏; Lower functionaries; Clerks), Choye (皁隷; Governmental servants), Sosa (小使; Janitors) were fixed. The number of functionaries and servants of each central organizations was reduced almost by half, and the head of each offices might recruit them under the direction of I-Ch’o (吏曹; the Ministry of Personnel). In the case of local offices, alongside with mass re-organization of Counties and Prefectures, quota and tasks of Sŏri, Choye, and Sosa were prescribed specifically. Also, Yu reflected the trend of Korip (雇立; hiring with salaries) actively, as he planned to improve the conditions of central and local functionaries and servants by distributing moderate salaries and Kongjŏn (公田; public lands) for an inducement to enhance their responsibilities and efficiencies.

17세기 군영문 둔전의 확대와 경영형태의 변화

송양섭 한국역사연구회 2000 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.36

반계 유형원의 인사제도 개선과 운영방안

송양섭 고려대학교 역사연구소 2019 사총 Vol.98 No.-

Yu Hyeongwon suggested plan for improvement on managing bureaucratic personnel under the principle of ‘granting position by talent’ based on the broad reform of government organization. At his time, the most problematic practices of bureaucracy were frequent replacement of officials and walkout of censors. For the solution, Yu insisted the principle of Gu-im (久任; guaranteeing long term), which applied the ideal of ancient Zhou Dynasty to reality. Among the officials of the third rank or higher, those who were credited for his capability and personality were to be appointed regardless of his term, following the ancient system. The tenure for the officials lower than the third rank and the local officials was set under the standard of 6 years and 9 years each. Moreover, to improve the functionality of Popyeom (褒貶; performance evaluation on bureaucrats), Yu argued the frequency of the council for personnel in the court to be reduced from twice a year to once a year, and the number of candidates to be decreased from three to two. Seogyeongje (署經制; ratification of personnel on reported personal history and career) were to be abolished, for it was creating advantages and disadvantages in promotion by the lineage of the candidate. For promotion and demotion of ranked officials, Yu referred the system of Tang Dynasty, which evaluated candidates by 9 grades, on the basis of 4 categories of ‘good virtue’ and 27 categories of ‘best performance.’ Yu used Teukcheonje (特薦制; special recommendation system) in order to address the concern that officials with excellent talents will be withered when they were appointed in a certain place for such a long term. Yu Hyeongwon also stated the importance of local administrative officials. In his plans, officials with excellent talents would be appointed to local magistrates by recommendation, and officials ranked as censor or chamberlain in the court would not be promoted to senior third rank unless they have experience at local magistrateship. It was proposed that local magistrates move to his post accompanied by his family, and positions such as captains of garrisons, translators, and educational officers were designed to be regular positions to hire the qualified among the locals. Yu urged to abolish Haeyubup (解由法; reporting for transfer) to diminish complex administrative procedure. 유형원은 대대적인 관제 개편을 바탕으로 ‘재능에 따른 직임의 부여’라는 원칙 하에 관료인사 운영에 대한 개선책을 제시하였다. 당시 가장 문제로 지목되었던 관원의 빈번한 교체와 대간피혐의 문제를 없애기 위한 대책으로 제시한 것이 바로 봉건의 취지를 현실에 맞게 적용한 久任의 원칙이었다. 당상관 이상 가운데 능력과 인품이 인정된 사람은 고제의 취지에 따라 연수제한 없이 직임을 맡기도록 하였고 그 이하와 지방관의 경우는 6년과 9년을 기준으로 근무기간을 정하였다. 아울러 褒貶制 개선방안으로 都目政事를 연 2회에서 연 1회로 줄이고 3望制는 2望制로 단순화하였다. 署經制와 같이 문벌을 따져 인사상의 불이익을 주는 규정도 없애고 포폄의 등급별 黜陟도 唐制를 원용, 4善 27最 기준 9등급으로 나누어 평가하도록 하였다. 久任으로 인해 우수한 인재가 사장될 것이라는 우려는 特薦制를 통해 보완하였다. 유형원은 지방관의 중요성을 역설하면서 천거를 통해 우수한 인재를 수령에 임명하고 대간 시종의 반열에 있는 사람은 수령의 실적이 없으면 정3품직으로 승진할 수 없도록 하였다. 수령은 가족을 동반하여 임지에 나아가 근무하고, 鎭將・譯官・敎官 등의 직임도 실직으로 만들어 지역민 가운데 적합한 자를 기용하도록 하였다. 해유법도 폐지해 번거로운 행정절차를 없애도록 하였다.

교육대학생의 교직에 관한 의식 : 춘천교육대학생을 중심으로

宋楊燮 춘천교육대학 학생지도연구소 1982 學生生活硏究 Vol.7 No.-

This study is purposed on the presenting essential materials for the improvements on the teacher training system, the management for the curriculum and the guidance with the analyzing the students' angles on the teaching profession. 347 students in Chun Cheon Teachers College served as subjects. This survey is divided into 6 area ① The basic angles on the teaching profession, ② The angles on the teaching activties, ③ The angles on the human relations, ④ The angles on the education of children, ⑤ The angles on the social recognition of teaching profession, ⑥ etc, . Conducting this survey, I suggest some proposals as follows. ① It is necessary to establish systems that students can apply for the teaching profession with the firm beliefs and a sense of duty on the teaching profession. ② It is necessary to reinforce the training for the preparation, producing materials for the lesson. ③ It is also necessary to change the students'recognition that the educational administrative authorities are supporting positively for the teaching activities of teachers. ④ It is necessary to train the future-teachers that they should have devote themselves to the children with the full understandings and warm affections. ⑤ It is necessary to improve the training systems for the high professional qualification,the rise in teachers' social status and to produce the atmosphere that the autonomy of teachers can be respected.

唐代의 國子監에 관한 硏究

宋楊燮 春川敎育大學 1985 論文集 Vol.25 No.-

The results on this study are as follows. First, in the aspect of school system : 1. The system of school administration was obvious and was put in orders. The education kept balance between the areas of capital and locals. 2. Taoism (the thought of Lao-Tzu) was emphasized in addition to tile Confucianism, and the education was throwing open in the aspect of educational thought. 3. The qualification of entrance had roots and erunk in the social position of feudalism, but the opportunities of education were widely given to the humble class. 4. Medical science as well as the study of Chinese classics were developed, and medical schools were estabilished not only in the central area, even in the petty units of administiation in the local areas. Second, 1'egarding to Kukjagam : 1, Kukjagam had an educational function for the sons of the aristocratic class and, at the same time, had generalized all schools in the country with relating to the state examinations. 2. The members of Kukjagam were specialized to the parts of teachers, the adminis trative officials, clercial workers, and odd business with the strict grade of rank. 3. The qualification of entrance was not limited only to the aristocratic class, but allowed to the sons of humble class who had special qualifications. 4. The subjects of education were kept the balance between the literary course and the science course. 5. The policy of education was kept consistency by selecting the officials with the organized relations to the system of state examination.

효종의 북벌구상과 군비증강책

송양섭 한국인물사연구소 2007 한국인물사연구 Vol.7 No.-

19세기 거제도 舊助羅 촌락민의 職役變動과 家系繼承 양상 -『項里戶籍中草』를 중심으로 -

송양섭 서울대학교 규장각한국학연구원 2014 한국문화 Vol.67 No.-

Gujora village in Geojedo was strongly influenced by the environmental condition as fishing village and military area. People who are registered as Yuhak(幼學) in the Hojuk(戶籍) were apparently Yangban. However, it cannot be regard literally as Yangban and it is doubtful that they could be the beneficiaries of exemption from military service. And also Ejungjikyeok(二重職役: Doubled occupation) which widely appeared was appeased the evasion of military service and the intermediation to move toward the upper group from the Juho(主戶) occupation. Although there were numerous limitations, their movement toward the upper occupation continued. It was the result of compromise by the government which wanted to secure military service personnel and commoners who wanted to improve their social position. Each person’s pedigree who lived in Gujora village indicates that the occupations are distributed well and show the characteristics of succession. Occupations basically succeeded to the first son and if the first son died early or breaks away from the kinship bonding, then it is succeeded by the next son(次子). Also even if they have the same Bonkwan(본관), the distribution of occupation was processed based on the pedigree which is regarded as the same kinship. And if one who is regarded as a breakaway from the kinship bonding, a different form of occupation succession was applied.

均役法 施行 以後 軍役制 變動의 推移와 洞布制의 運營

宋亮燮 국방부 군사편찬연구소 1995 군사 Vol.- No.31