개항장경제권과 근대세계체제

鄭榮九(정영구) 중국근현대사학회 2017 중국근현대사연구 Vol.74 No.-

The Chinese sugar industry encountered a serious crisis in 1890s. first of all, Chinese government had lost Taiwan what is a major sugar production region in consequence of the Sino-Japanese War. The second, Bean-cakes of the northeastern provinces started export to Japan, and domestic supply was reduced. due to this, Chinese Sugar"s production cost was risen suddenly. Because bean-cakes were widely used in sugarcane cultivation. The third, a lot of foreign sugar got into competition with Chinese sugar at home and abroad. Therefore, many researcher of Chinese sugar paid attention to Chinese market in 1890s. In particularly, Christian Daniels took note of Chinese sugar industry"s international status from 1893 to 1900 when is deficit conversion period. meanwhile, Chinese market in 1890s also received attention by Chinese economic historian. They supposed Chinese market in this period was not a organic shapes, but assembly of several broad market, open-port economic region, and they were incorporated into modern world system on a each different aspect. In this context I reviewed Chinese sugar trade in 1890s. It did not take the focus on world trade, but domestic trade. Through this, I have considered that various shape of Chinese sugar market. For example, how to foreign sugar penetrate into Chinese market, what change happened in Chinese sugar market, and why a lot of foreign sugar imported in this period suddenly. Finally I confirmed that Chines sugar market was incorporated into modern world system in 1890s, by each of open-port economic region in different time, in different aspect.

전통 중국 사탕수수 농업의 변화와 발전

정영구(Jeong, Young-Goo) 역사학회 2015 역사학보 Vol.0 No.226

Although Chinese Sugar has a long history, it’s research result is poor, and research result of sugar cane what is raw material of sugar is more poorer than sugar. Because a recognition that sugarcane is only ingredients of sugar is prevalent among researchers, Industrial history has larger proportion than Agricultural history in History Division, and we have unconsciously prejudice that agriculture is underdeveloped than industry. Except a few research, almost researches studied on sugar cane in Chinese study as a part of sugar study. But if we take it into consideration that study of sugar cane take possession of a half in sugar industry, the proportion of sugar cane in Chinese sugar study is too small. And when we write on sugar industry, we always focused on changing tools, develop of skills without change of sugarcane. But if we do not review about change of sugar cane, while we study of Chinese sugar industry, it would be in incomplete. Through reviewing Chinese historical record, this research checks for sugar cane species, change of a method of sugar cane cultivation in China. Therefore it confirms significance about change of sugar cane cultivation.

1864년~1904년 중국 설탕시장의 성격

정영구(Jeong, Young goo) 동양사학회 2015 東洋史學硏究 Vol.131 No.-

Generally speak about Chinese sugar market in turning point of modern ages, Chinese sugar struggled against Hongkong"s sugar since the mid-1880s, and imported sugar has completely pushed the Chinese sugar in Chinese sugar market at 1890s. Since then Chinese sugar industry began to collapse. But conventional research has some problem. They have used to cited trade balance of Zhongguojiuhaiguanshiliao without any criticism. But trade balance, data of “Part 1. Report on the trade of China, And abstract of statistics” is differ from total amount of every maritime customs in the case of article of sugar. And prior to 1874, every maritime customs kept the books in own"s trading currency. Moreover prior to 1904, it kept the trade balance without distinction of F.O.B and C.I.F. Therefore, this research try to revise value of trade balance of Zhongguojiuhaiguanshiliao and try to analyze it with trading volume and domestic demand. Accordingly it aim to understanding Chinese sugar market, 1864-1904.

중국인(中國人) 해외이주(海外移住), 음지(陰地)에서 양지(陽地)로 : 제이차(第二次) 중영전쟁기(中英戰爭期) 외국초공장정(外國招工章程)의 성격(性格)

정영구 ( Jeong¸ Young Goo ) 중국사학회 2020 中國史硏究 Vol.0 No.129

In mid-nineteenth century, Chinese had Sinocentrism, they did not prefer to go abroad consciously or unconsciously. Furthermore, the law was so strict that it was hard to choose to go abroad. However, as the population exploded during the Emperor Qianlong period, the shortage of arable land and the rapid increase of unemployed people forced Chinese workers into go abroad, but large-scale migration did not happen easily. Meanwhile, the Opium War loosened the control of Qing Dynasty, and foreign merchants took advantage of the Chinese situation to operate a human trafficking-type migration project called Coolie-Trade. However, Great Britain, whose current account balance was deteriorating due to the rapid industrialization, needed the huge Chinese market, so they could not carry out illegal coolie trade because they were afraid of the Chinese turning their back on them. The Anglo-French Allied Forces, which occupied Guangzhou in the Second Opium War, pressured the Guangzhou government to legalize the coolie immigration. The result was 12 articles of Lao chong-guang's immigration regulation. This regulation was made under the influence of immigration rules that existed in Guangzhou, and the main point was to prevent human trafficking and not to prevent immigrants who wanted to leave the country. Lao chong-guang tried to eradicate human trafficking by using this regulation, and English planned a large-scale migration that would not make a bad impression on the Chinese. Lao chong-guang needed this regulation to keep the unwanted out, and English needed it to get the desired out, but each other's purpose was to eradicate human trafficking. Although there is no better realization of the coolie immigration through this regulation than coolie trade, and even if coolie trade has not been eradicated since the enactment of this regulation, it must have been the first law designed to stop coolie trade, which has had a significant impact on the flow of Chinese migration.

19세기 후반 중국인 쿨리 해외이주의 개념과 방식

정영구 명청사학회 2017 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.48

A study about Coolie trade have been studied by lots of Chinese emigration researcher, and many achievement were published. But unexpectedly very basic problem have not yet solved. The biggest question lying before this subject defines a concept and range of coolie trade. Some nonchinese researchers as P. C. Cambell assured that coolie trade occurred from 1845 to 1874, and another emigrations except it were voluntary emigrations even if sometimes there were illegal activities. On the other hand, lots of Chinese researchers classified almost Chinese emigrations like coolie trade, southeast asia emigrations and the Atlantic emigrations in second half of 19C, as involuntary emigrations. By the way in the Chinese researchers, there are three group. One marks coolie trade and southeast emigrations down as involuntary emigrations, the other marks coolie trade and the Atlantic emigrations down as involuntary emigrations, another marks all down as involuntary emigrations. Therefore we need a definite concept about Chinese emigration at this period. To do this, we have to defines term of piggy(猪仔) and coolie(苦力). Wu feng-bin(吳鳳斌) assured that they were same term but Peng jia-li(彭家禮) assert that they were definitely different things. And coolie that means Chinese labour in English was translate into piggy(猪仔), coolie(苦力), new passenger(新客) and contract labour(契約華工) that have different means in a cultural area of Chinese character. Besides, the terms what explain coolie, ‘Contract Labour’ and ‘Indentured Labour’ sometimes were used different meaning in a cultural area of Chinese character. Thus if term and concept of it were not defined, studies of Chinese emigration in 19C would meet with a difficulty. This research considers publications about coolie, classifies Chinese emigration, and defined concept and form of Chinese coolie emigration in 19th century.

전통중국의 설탕-면화교역과 근대세계체제

鄭榮九(Jeong Young Goo) 동양사학회 2017 東洋史學硏究 Vol.139 No.-

The Sugar-Cotton trade between south China region and Yangtze delta region had received foreigner’s attention from beginning open port. And they wanted to penetrate this system literally impregnable against all the assaults of foreign competition as soon as possible. The situation what foreigner’s goods effectively penetrated into a well-ordered Chinese trade system signifies that it act as a big variable at the traditional Chinese market order, that is to say that traditional Chinese market have started being incorporated at modern world system. On the other hands, that traditional Chinese market have started being incorporated at modern world system means what the specialized Chinese trade system have collapsed. In other words, It is a significant sign of entering into modern world system that typical trade system such as the sugar-cotton trade in Ming-Qing period, had collapsed. Nevertheless the sugar-cotton trade in Ming-Qing period occupies significant location in the history of Chinese social economy, researchers did not much conducted a study on it. Because there is not enough historical records about it and they think that sugar is less important than cotton goods and south China region is less important than Yangtze delta region. Thus the great part of researches have narrated it as one part of Yangtze delta region’s social economic history about cotton goods trade between south China region and Yangtze delta region. Consequently in this article, I tried to consider sugar-cotton trade with different point of view, and Through it, I narrated relations between Traditional Chinese market and modern world system.

청말민초 중국 흑설탕시장과 설탕소비경향

정영구 중국근현대사학회 2019 중국근현대사연구 Vol.84 No.-

In modernizing period, as distinct question from the Chinese white sugar, Chinese brown sugar was not removed from the sugar market until the early 1920s and competed with foreign brown sugar. The reason why Chinese brown sugar was able to compete with foreign brown sugar was not in foreign sugar but in the production, distribution and consumption structure of Chinese brown sugar. And ‘Chinese palate’ also served as one of the main reasons. In this article, I classified and analyzed the foreign brown sugar imports from 1902 to 1930 by time and country of origin, and inquired into the main factor that influenced the trading patterns of brown sugar during this period. Then I examined whether the Chinese palate acted as the main factor that determines the trade. This was confirmed by the preceding study, which analyzed the trading status of Chinese brown sugar during this period, but to analyze foreign brown sugar have a not inconsiderable value in the verification dimension of the preceding study, because the claim of the preceding study should be reflected in the transaction status of foreign brown sugar, which was the rival of Chinese brown sugar. To analyze this effectively, the time was divided between 1909 and 1910 and 1923 between 1924. In contrast to this, this article described the consumption patterns of Chinese sugar. This is related to the consumption trend, so it may feel alienated from the main narrative. However, we applied the trend of sugar consumption to the sugar trade situation because we believe that it is a desirable direction for future economic history studies to be described in response to cultural history research. I think this attempt is worth a try, even if this makes this article somewhat less complete. Through these two attempts, It is dernier aims that look at how Chinese consumption of brown sugar proceeded through the trading patterns of the brown sugar market in China during this period.

19세기 중반 중국의 쿨리무역(苦力貿易)

鄭榮九(Jeong, Young Goo) 동양사학회 2018 東洋史學硏究 Vol.142 No.-

China got enveloped in enormous wave of emigration in 19th century. At first, Chniese went to Straits Settlements in South-East Asia. There was not only close to South China but already settled a lot of Chinese. in South-East Asia, There was always short of labor and many Chinese coolies wanted to got a job in overseas country. Therefore, the Credit-ticket system was made by emigration agent. After opening Chinese five port, western capitalist who have experience about slavery trade go into China. They tried to take advantage of situations which Atlantic plantation need labors and Chinese was going abroad. They started business of emigration, tried to apply a contract-labor system what have operated in western, called “The indentured servants” in Amoy where is small city briskly going to overseas country. But coolies who go to abroad preferred South-east Asia where large acquaintance have settled or preferred California and Sydney where have gold mine. So recruiting coolies in Amoy took a lot of doing. Further poor coolies could easily get used the credit-ticket system, nobody wanted to go to Atlantic plantation. Finally contract emigration to Atlantic plantation died to death and it was caused unbalance between demand and supply. In this state, western capitalist conspire with Chinese coolie dealers who traffic in Chinese, coolie-trade emerged as a new emigration system. This paper examined beginning point of coolie trade through checked various historic materials, reviewed the cause which coolie trade started in Amoy, and explained the reason why coolie trade continued for 30 years in spite of that it different from traditional emigration in Amoy.

1872년 마리아 루스호 재판과 쿨리무역

정영구 수선사학회 2024 史林 Vol.- No.87

, The Maria Luz is a Peruvian-flagged ship that entered Yokohama, Japan, on July 9, 1872 to repair a ship damaged by a typhoon. Since Peru and Japan had not established diplomatic relations at this time, the Maria Luz tried to sail after repair with the help of the Spanish consul. However, one of the coolie on board the Maria Ruth escaped and asked for help from the UK. The British consul pressured the Japanese government to try Maria Ruth on charges of abuse about coolie. Although Japan did not have jurisdiction over Peruvian ships, it conducted two trials under the universal definition of human rights protection. Japan ruled that Maria Luz abused Coolie. After this incident, the Coolie trade was terminated, and China had actively interested in the protection of Coolie, and Japan gradually revised the unequal treaty. Previous studies on the Maria Luz case were mainly reviewed in terms of human rights, diplomacy, and law. However, the key issue in this case is Coolie Trade, and the UK is one of the main players in this case. It is very rare that Research results reviewed by linking Coolie Trade and British interests. In this paper, I analyze and introduce the process of the trial, and review in connection with migration situation in Macao and Hong Kong, and I highlight why the UK actively intervened in this case.

중국(中國) 전통제당기술(傳統製糖技術)의 형성(形成)과 발전(發展)

정영구 ( Jeong Young Goo ) 중국사학회 2017 中國史硏究 Vol.110 No.-

In the Ming dynasty, Sugarcane technology rapidly developed and the total output increased. There were two new inventions. One was Chinese vertical two roller sugarcane mill, the other was Chinese boiling train operating system. In terms of sugarcane technic, it has almost been completed in 16C and has continued until 1930s when many modern sugarcane factory was build in China. Therefore, a lot of researcher studied the Ming-Qing dynasty sugarcane manufactures and no small achievements have come to fruition. Although good research was made public, till now there is few research that was compared Chinese sugarcane technology manuscript during Chinese all period. So this research reviews Chinese sugarcane technology from Tang to The Republic of China and compare them with the time stream. Traditional Chinese sugarcane technic feature is four. First, it is using movable sugarcane mills installed vertical two roller. It was suitable tool to Chinese small scale independent farmer. Second, it is using a little lime for clarified sugarcane juice. lime was sometimes substituted other things according to country's rules. Third, it is using Chinese boiling train operating system. It maximize fuel saving. Forth, there is making white sugar by clay. This technic is not clear whether from China or not, and from the Ming or not. Anyway this technic result in popularization of white sugar. This 4 technic not only led to cost reduction and increasing production, but it also brought on more and more consumption. In this way, this virtuous circle made China to famous country of sugar production in the world.