한(漢)부터 당(唐)까지의 발해(渤海) 위치 재고(再考)

이기훈(Ki-Hoon Yi) 바른역사학술원 2024 역사와융합 Vol.- No.19

기원전 109년 한(漢)이 고조선을 공격할 당시 제군(齊軍)이 배를 타고 건넜던 발해(渤海)와, 서기 612년 수(隋)가 고구려를 공격할 때 건넜던 발해(勃 澥)는 동일한 바다로서, 현재의 황해(黃海) 북쪽의 산동반도(山東半島)와 요동반도(遼東半島)로 둘러싸인 바다(현 발해)가 아닌 중국 내륙의 거대한 저수지 대(瀦水地代)로 비정된다. 이러한 사실은 발해군(勃海郡)이 하북성 중남부 중산국(中山國) 근처에 있다는『후한서(後漢書)』기록, 발해가 터졌다는(勃海 決) 『회남자(淮南子)』와『수서(隋書)』의 기록, 해(海)가 황하(河)로 기록되기도 했다는『사기집해(史記集解)』기록, 발해가 일반적인 바다(大海)와 달리 홍수(大水)로 범람했던 기사를 전하는『한서(漢書)』,『후한서(後漢書)』, 『북사(北史)』,『수서(隋書)』등 BC 1세기~ AD 7세기 기록들, 발해의 海(해) 가 물길이 끊어지기도 했던(斷水) 澥(해)라고 주석한 『사기색은(史記索隱)』 의 기록, 발해지역을 기준으로 주변이 육지였다는 사실(渤海左右郡), 고대 중원 내륙(하북성 남부 평원)에서 당(唐)시기까지도 구운소금(煮鹽)이 생산됐던점, 발해와 관련된 한(漢)부터 당(唐)까지의 역대 사서 지명들이 대부분 황하중하류(하북성 남부)를 중심으로 남북에 위치해 있었다는 사실 등을 통해 확인된다. 『사기(史記)』에 기록된 여러 바다 중 고조선을 공격한 전한(前漢) 무제(武帝) 시기에 발해(渤海)는 북해(北海)와 서로 구분되어 존재하던 바다였다. 이렇게 ‘발해가 북해가 아니라는 사실’은『사기(史記)』이외에도『후한서(後漢書)』,『진서(晉書)』,『구당서(舊唐書)』,『신당서(新唐書)』에 발해(渤 海)와 북해(北海)가 동시대에 각각 다른 바다로 등장하는 점으로 확인할 수있다. 고대 발해(渤海)가 현재의 발해가 아니라 당시의 또 다른 바다, 즉 하북성 남부 중원 내륙의 거대한 저수지대(瀦水地代)였다면, 전한(前漢) 정권이 고조선을 치기 위해 건넌 발해(渤海)와 수(隋) 정권이 고구려를 치기 위해 건너게 했던 발해(勃澥)를 현재의 발해와 동일시하는 기존 관점들은 재고되어야할 것이다. Bohai(渤海) Sea, which was crossed by Han(漢) Dynasty in 109 BC when Han(漢) attacked Gojoseon(古朝鮮), and Bo'xie(勃澥) Sea which was crossed by Sui(隋) Dynasty in 612 AD when Sui(隋) attacked Goguryeo(高句麗) were the same sea, but they were not the current Bohai(渤海) Sea that is the northern sea of the current Yellow Sea(黃海). At that time, Bohai(渤海) Sea was like a huge inland lake in the lower part of the Yellow River. This fact can be confirmed by many records of Bohai flooding, Bohai's bank bursting, and Bohai's distance from Luoyang(雒陽). The fact that the ancient cities related to Bohai were located in the north and south around the Yellow River also corroborates it. Shiji(史記) records there were two seas which were close to Gojoseon(古朝鮮) during the Earlier Han(前漢) period, the Bohai Sea(渤海) and the North Sea(北 海), and they were different seas which existed at the same time. Specifically, it is proved by this study that the ancient Bohai Sea(渤海) was in the southern Hebei Province(河北省) of China, and the current Bohai Sea was called as the North Sea(北海). Therefore, the Bohai Sea(渤海, 勃澥) that Han(漢) Dynasty and Sui(隋) Dynasty had crossed to attack Gojoseon and Goguryeo can not be the current Bohai Sea(past North Sea), but the ancient Bohai Sea, which was inland in the Central Plain(中原) of China. These fact proves that the current global scholars’ assignment of the capitals of Gojoseon and Goguryeo to Pyongyang(平壤), North Korea, is most likely in error. This is because if the Bohai Sea(渤海) was inland in the Central Plain(中原) of China, it means that the Han(漢) and Sui(隋) dynasties crossed the sea that was not the sea that they had to cross to attack Pyongyang(平壤), North Korea. In other words, it can be inferred that the capitals of Gojoseon and Goguryeo were in the northern part of present-day Hebei Province (near Beijing) of China, not in the Korean Peninsula.

Difference of Nutrients Budgets in the Bohai Sea between 1982 and 1992 related to the Decrease of the Yellow River Discharge

Hayashi, Mitsuru,Yanagi, Tetsuo,Xinyu, Guo The Korean Society of Oceanography 2004 Journal of the Korean Society of Oceanography Vol.39 No.1

Difference of Dissolved Inorganic Phosphorus (DIP), Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen (DIN) and Dissolved Silicate (DSi) budgets in the Bohai Sea between 1982 and 1992 related the decrease of the Yellow River discharge is discussed on the basis of observed data. The estuarine circulation in the Bohai Sea had been weakened from 1982 to 1992 due to the decrease of the Yellow River discharge and the average residence time of fresh water had become longer. DIN concentration increased but DIP and DSi concentrations decreased from 1982 to 1992 in the Bohai Sea. Primary production was regulated mainly by water temperature and DIN concentration in 1982 but it was regulated mainly by DIP concentration in 1992. Primary production was larger than decomposition plus bottom release and nitrogen fixation was larger than denitrification in 1982. However, decomposition plus bottom release was larger than primary production and denitrification was larger than nitrogen fixation in 1992 in the Bohai Sea.

Monthly Geographical Distribution of Nemopilema nomurai (Scyphozoa: Rhizosotomeae) in the Bohai and North Yellow Seas: a Preliminary Study using Ships of Opportunity

윤원득,한기연,Jing Dong,채진호 한국해양과학기술원 2018 Ocean science journal Vol.53 No.4

Nemopilema nomurai, an endemic and blooming jellyfish species in the waters of Korea, China and Japan, were monitored from June to October, 2017, in the Bohai and northwestern Yellow Seas, using the ship sighting method, as a preliminary study to investigate the spatiotemporal distribution of medusae. Monitoring revealed that the mass appearance of young medusae was observed in Liaodong Bay in summer. In late summer they disappeared and a high density zone shifted to the mid- and northern Bohai Strait. In early fall, healthy adults with relatively high density were observed in the area around the border of the South and North Yellow Seas. These results suggest that medusae of N. nomurai originated from the Bohai Sea and were advected into the Yellow Sea through the Bohai Strait.

蒼海郡 위치비정의 쟁점과 전제

최슬기 고조선단군학회 2021 고조선단군학 Vol.44 No.-

Canghai Commandery(蒼海郡) is Han(漢) dynasty’s commandery established in the areas of Chosŏn(朝鮮), which held a strategic position between Han and Xiongnu(匈奴) at the height of the conflict between the two factions. Although it was established two decades earlier than the so-called “Four Commanderies of Han(漢四郡)” installed after the fall of Wiman Chosŏn(衛滿朝鮮)”, Canghai Commandery was abolished within only two years. So far, the commandery has been referred as a side issue in the studies about Four Commanderies of Han, or simply understood as a predecessor to Zhenfan(眞蕃) or Xuantu(玄菟) Commandery. Generally, the studies that considered its location in regard to the name ‘Canghai(蒼海)’, or estimated the location at the ‘East Sea region’ focusing on the ethnic background of ‘Yegun Namnyŏ(穢君南閭; Namnyŏ, the Lord of Ye) dominated the research trend in academia. Those studies that focused on the ethnic background of Yegun Namnyŏ have usually linked him with Puyŏ(夫餘), Koguryŏ(高句麗), Okchŏ(沃沮), Ye(濊, or Tongye). However, since these conlusions were based on Sanguozhi(三國志) or Hou Hanshu(後漢書) illustrating the situation in the third century A.D., they have a blind spot that it is far from the historical situation during the period when Yegun Namnyŏ was alive. Additionally, the estimations based on place names often overlooked the fact that ‘Canghai’ is not an exclusive name to East Sea. Considering the context of the original historical texts, it is necessary to estimate the location of Canghai Commandery in the historical context during the period when the event occurred, in other words, when Wiman Chosŏn still existed. This paper questions the previous studies that the Han dynasty established the commandery in East Sea regions across Wiman Chosŏn’s territory before its fall. Also, it pointed out that Canghai is likely to refer Bohai(渤海) Sea under the perspective of its submission to Liaodong Commandery. 창해군은 한과 흉노의 각축이 한창일 무렵, 양자 사이에서 전략적 위치를 점했던 조선 지역에 설치된 한의 군현이다. 창해군은 위만조선 멸망 뒤에 설치된 한군현보다 20여 년 앞서 설치되었지만, 2년이 채 안되어 폐지되었다. 창해군은 한군현을 다루는 연구들에서 부수적으로 언급되거나 진번군 혹은 현도군의 전신으로 이해되어 왔다. 대체로 ‘창해’라는 지명과 관련하여 위치를 고려하거나, ‘예군남려’의 종족기반에 중심을 두어 창해군을 ‘동해안 지역’에 비정하는 연구가 주류를 점해왔다. 예군남려의 종족기반에 주목한 연구들은 대체로 예군남려를 부여나 고구려, 옥저, 예(동예)와 연결시켜왔다. 그러나 이는 기원후 3세기경 『삼국지』, 『후한서』에 근거하여 내린 결론이므로 예군남려가 생존했던 당시의 역사상과 거리가 멀다는 맹점이 있다. 또한 지명에 근거한 견해 역시 ‘창해’가 동해만 전유하는 명칭이 아닌 점을 간과한 측면이 있다. 원사료의 문맥을 고려하여 사건이 발발한 전한 무제기, 즉 위만조선 존속시기의 역사적 맥락 속에서 창해군의 위치를 파악해야한다. 이 글은 위만조선 멸망 전에 한이 그 영역을 관통하여 동해안 지역에 창해군을 설치했을 것이라는 기존 견해에 의문을 던진 것으로, 요동내속이라는 관점에서 본다면 창해는 발해를 가리킬 가능성이 높다는 점을 지적하였다.

CVM을 이용한 세계자연유산 중국 황하이 연안-보하이 만 철새 보호지역의 보존가치 평가

오시요 ( Shi-yao Wu ),이충기 ( Choong-ki Lee ),주동오 ( Dongoh Joo ) 경기대학교 관광종합연구소 2024 여가관광연구 Vol.40 No.-

본 연구는 세계자연유산인 황하이 연안-보하이 만 철새 보호지역의 보존가치를 이선선택형 가상가치평가법(DC-CVM)이용해 추정했다. 분석결과, 철새 보호지역 보존기금 지불의사에 영향을 미치는 변수들은 제시금액, 세계자연유산의 가치인식, 지속가능지능, 신환경패러다임의 자연중심 요인, 방문의도, 연령, 월평균소득으로 나타났다. 절단된 평균(WTPtruncated)을 기준으로 연강 1인당 철새 보호지역 보존가치를 추정한 결과 가설적 상황의 경우 259위안(한화 48,964원), 실제적 상황 2의 경우 135위안(한화 25,594원)이었다. 해당 지역의 인구를 고려할 때 보존가치 총계는 연간 약 84억 3천만 위안(한화 약 1조 5천 9백억 원)으로 추정되었다. 본 연구결과는 황하이 철새 보호지역의 지속가능한 보존과 발전에 필요한 정책의 기초자료로 활용될 것이다. This study aims to estimate the preservation value of the Migratory Bird Sanctuaries along the Coast of Yellow Sea-Bohai Gulf via a dichotomous choice contingent valuation method. Results revealed that bid amount, value perceptions of World Natural Heritage, sustainable intelligence, balance of nature factor in the New Environmental Paradigm, visit intention, age, and average monthly income were all significant explanatory variables of respondents’ willingness to pay (WTP) for the preservation of the migratory bird sanctuaries. Results also show that respondents were willing to pay between 135 CNY (≈ 25,594 KRW) (real setting 2)and 259 CNY (≈48,964 KRW) (hypothetical setting) per year based on the WTP truncated mean. Considering the population of the migratory bird sanctuary, the total preservation value was estimated to be about 84.3 billion CNY (≈1.59 trillion KRW) per year. The findings of this study provide managerial implications for conservation and management policies of the migratory sanctuary.

CVM을 이용한 세계자연유산 중국 황하이 연안-보하이 만 철새 보호지역의 보존가치 평가

오시요,이충기,주동오 경기대학교 관광종합연구소 2024 여가관광연구 Vol.40 No.-

본 연구는 세계자연유산인 황하이 연안-보하이 만 철새 보호지역의 보존가치를 이선선택형 가상가치평가법(DC-CVM)이용해 추정했다. 분석결과, 철새 보호지역 보존기금 지불의사에 영향을 미치는 변수들은 제시금액, 세계자연유산의 가치인식, 지속가능지능, 신환경패러다임의 자연중심 요인, 방문의도, 연령, 월평균소득으로 나타났다. 절단된 평균(WTPtruncated)을 기준으로 연강 1인당 철새 보호지역 보존가치를 추정한 결과 가설적 상황의 경우 259위안(한화 48,964원), 실제적 상황 2의 경우 135위안(한화 25,594원)이었다. 해당 지역의 인구를 고려할 때 보존가치 총계는 연간 약 84억 3천만 위안(한화 약 1조 5천 9백억 원)으로 추정되었다. 본 연구결과는 황하이 철새 보호지역의 지속가능한 보존과 발전에 필요한 정책의 기초자료로 활용될 것이다. This study aims to estimate the preservation value of the Migratory Bird Sanctuaries along the Coast of Yellow Sea-Bohai Gulf via a dichotomous choice contingent valuation method. Results revealed that bid amount, value perceptions of World Natural Heritage, sustainable intelligence, balance of nature factor in the New Environmental Paradigm, visit intention, age, and average monthly income were all significant explanatory variables of respondents’ willingness to pay (WTP) for the preservation of the migratory bird sanctuaries. Results also show that respondents were willing to pay between 135 CNY (≈25,594 KRW) (real setting 2)and 259 CNY (≈48,964 KRW) (hypothetical setting) per year based on the WTP truncated mean. Considering the population of the migratory bird sanctuary, the total preservation value was estimated to be about 84.3 billion CNY (≈1.59 trillion KRW) per year. The findings of this study provide managerial implications for conservation and management policies of the migratory sanctuary.

환황․발해지역의 개발전략에 관한 연구

김항석(Kim, Hang Seok) 글로벌경영학회 2006 글로벌경영학회지 Vol.3 No.2

21세기 세계 경제통합에서 특히 중요한 것은 국가내의 특정지방과 주변국들이 통합하는 국지경제권(subregional economic zone)통합이다. 한국의 서해안지역과 중국의 환황․발해지역은 황해를 마주하고 있는 지리적 특성과 인접성 그리고 역사적․문화적 동질성으로 자연발생적인 환황․발해지역경제권을 형성하고 있다. 환황해권의 지역적범위는 엄격하게 제한할 수는 없지만 대체로 황해와 발해를 중심으로 그 주변에 위치하고 있는 지역으로 동 지역경제통합의 중요성은 그 협업적 생산기반에 있다. 한국이 중국에 수출하는 주요품목은 완제품이 아니라 부품중심으로 이뤄지고 있으며, 그 이유는 중국에 진출한 한국기업이 한국에서 부품을 조달하기 때문이다. 이러한 시각에서 서해안지역은 기능과 역할을 재정립할 필요성이 높아지고 있으며 군산을 중심으로 특히 최근 개발하고 있는 새만금 지역을 환황해지역경제권 시대의 국제물퓨거점으로 개발과 활용이 요청된다. The Yellow & Bohai Sea Sub Region has numerous large urban agglomerations with strong industrial production capacity. Indeed, the Yellow & Bohai Sea Sub Region has a strong potential to become the world s core manufacturing zone in the industries of electronics, car, and machinery. If supported by efficient technological production, and logistics networks, the vision can be materialized. Recently, there has been significant growth of cross-border inter-city and inter-provincial sisterhood relations and multilateral associations of cities and provinces in and around the Yellow & Bohai Sea Sub Region. Also observed was a fast growth of transportation links between cities in the Yellow & Bohai Sea Sub Region. Although it is ideal to form an economic zone including all the cities and provinces within the Yeoolw & Bohai Sea Sub Region, we consider the idea impractical at the moment. We strongly believe that city-regions are the growth engines of the new global economic order. Forming inter-city networks among the Yellow & Bohai Sea Sub Region would provide a foundation to build a full-blown model of cross-border inter-local cooperation

Trophic strategy of diverse methanogens across a river-to-sea gradient

Bingchen Wang,Fanghua Liu,Shiling Zheng,Qinqin Hao 한국미생물학회 2019 The journal of microbiology Vol.57 No.6

Methanogens are an important biogenic source of methane, especially in estuarine waters across a river-to-sea gradient. However, the diversity and trophic strategy of methanogens in this gradient are not clear. In this study, the diversity and trophic strategy of methanogens in sediments across the Yellow River (YR) to the Bohai Sea (BS) gradient were investigated by high-throughput sequencing based on the 16S rRNA gene. The results showed that the diversity of methanogens in sediments varied from multitrophic communities in YR samples to specific methylotrophic communities in BS samples. The methanogenic community in YR samples was dominated by Methanosarcina, while that of BS samples was dominated by methylotrophic Methanococcoides. The distinct methanogens suggested that the methanogenic community of BS sediments did not originate from YR sediment input. High-throughput sequencing of the mcrA gene revealed that active Methanococcoides dominated in the BS enrichment cultures with trimethylamine as the substrate, and methylotrophic Methanolobus dominated in the YR enrichment cultures, as detected to a limited amount in in situ sediment samples. Methanosarcina were also detected in this gradient sample. Furthermore, the same species of Methanosarcina mazei, which was widely distributed, was isolated from the area across a river-to-sea gradient by the culture-dependent method. In summary, our results showed that a distribution of diverse methanogens across a river-to-sea gradient may shed light on adaption strategies and survival mechanisms in methanogens.

환발해권의 물류수급불균형과 한국제조업체의 대응과제 - GSCM 허브구축을 위한 물류의 거버넌스를 중심으로 : 환발해권의 물류수급불균형과 한국제조업체의 대응과제

최용록(Yong-Rok Choi),이충추(Zhongqiu Li) 인하대학교 산업경제연구소 2006 경상논집 Vol.20 No.1

This paper investigates the logistics bottlenecks of the North-east China, where most of Korean manufacturing firms invested in. With the background of rapidly growing economies, the regional economy as well as the logistics network in the region has been highly developed. But due to the imbalance of logistics demand and supply in the Bohai round-sea area, many Korean firms have faced the severe bottleneck in the international logistics. The paper analyzes the reason for this imbalance of logistics in terms of three factors such as governance, localization by strategic alliance, and governmental collaboration. Based on the factors, the paper suggests three solutions with firm-level governance, industry-level 4PL strategies, and government-level policies.

Variability of Suspended Particulate Matter in the Bohai Sea from the Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI)

Kevin Ruddick,Quinten Vanhellemont,Jing Yan,Griet Neukermans,Guomei Wei,Shaoling Shang 한국해양과학기술원 2012 Ocean science journal Vol.47 No.3

This study assesses the performance of the Geostationary Ocean Imager (GOCI) for mapping of suspended particulate matter in the Bohai Sea, a turbid water region. GOCI imagery for remote sensing reflectance and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) is analysed in detail for two days in June 2011 (8 images per day). Both instantaneous and daily composite maps are considered and a comparison is made with corresponding reflectance and TSS products from MODIS-AQUA. Results show TSS distributions corresponding to previous studies of the region. The advantage of the higher acquisition frequency (8 images/day instead of 1) offered by GOCI is clearly demonstrated in the daily composite which is more complete during this period of scattered but moving clouds. Consideration of temporal variation over the day indicates low natural variability but some artificial variability from processing errors – this analysis provides a first indication of how the higher frequency of data from geostationary ocean colour could lead to improved data quality control via temporal coherency outlier detection. While there is room for improvement on the GOCI calibration, atmospheric correction and retrieval algorithms, the current study suggests that the GOCI data can already be used now to study qualitatively sediment dynamics except in the extremely turbid waters which are masked out of the current dataset. In a wider context, it is considered that the technical challenges of geostationary ocean colour have been met by the GOCI concept, and, notwithstanding potential improvements on the concept and data processing methods, it is recommended that this mission serve as a model for future geostationary ocean colour sensors over Europe/Africa and the Americas.